/,.; o" *, ^ DISC ^tunuc. ILiltraru. >:Ar<>rttft^ CZi BAB^NlLciBLE. ^-C,^^^ ' / t. ANNUAL RECORD /^S. OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY FOR 1873. EDITED BY SPENCER F. BAIRD WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF EMINENT MEN OF SCIENCE. >gi.!V '.A>r^ ^ ci "vC^ NEW YORK: HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE. 1874 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, by II A U P E U & B R O T H E K S, In tlie Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. PREFACE. The present volume is the third of a series in which it is proposed to present, year by year, the principal dis- coveries in the various branches of science, theoretical and a}7plied the selection of subjects being made, primarily, on the ground of their supposed importance, as marking the stages of scientific advancement ; and, secondarily, as being of interest to the general reader. A general sum- mary of progress for the year in the different departments precedes the volume, and is intended to give a connected and systematic sketch of the more important announce- ments, and usually contains much matter not presented in the body of the work. It will, of course, be readily understood that, in the com- pass of a single duodecimo volume, it is impossible to do more than to touch very briefly upon what appear to be the more noteworthy subjects. As far as the specialist is con- cerned, he must necessarily have recourse, for full informa- tion, to the Journals or Year-Books devoted to his partic- ular department, of wliich scarcely any branch of science is at present destitute. The aggregate of announcements of original investigations and discoveries for any given year, contained in these works, would alone fill many volumes. As no person, however learned, is competent to decide upon the relative importance of facts and discoveries in departments other than his own, the editor would be far from arrogating to himself even an average ability in this respect. He has, however, been so fortunate as to secure the collaboration of some of the most emi- nent men of science in this country ; and among those to whom he has been indebted for communications of original discoveries, abstracts of what has been done by iv PREFACE. others, or sunimarics of progress in their respective de- partments, he is permitted to mention the names of Pro- fessoj-s Henry, Giil^ llarkness, Abbe, Xewcomb, Clark, and Ilayden, of Wasliington ; Professors AValil, G. F. Parker, Cope, and Leidy, of Philadelphia ; Dr. Charles Ran, of Xew York ; Dr. A. S. Packard, of Salem ; Professor W. O. Atwater, of Middletown ; Professors Verrill, Marsh, and Dana, of Kew Haven ; Professors Agassiz, Gray, and Wat- son, of Cambridge ; Professor T. Sterry Ilnnt, of Boston ; Professor Himes, of Carlisle, Pa. ; Dr. Alfred W. Bennett, of London ; and several other collaborators who prefer to remain unnamed for the present. In addition to the large number of scientific serials enu- merated at the end of the volume as received regularly by mail, expressly for service in preparing the Hecord^ free access has been allowed by its Secretary to the unrivaled library of publications of learned societies belonging to the Smithsonian Institution. The plan adopted in printing the Hecord^ and the mul- tiplicity of subjects sometimes contained in a single article, has prevented a satisfactory systematic arrangement in the body of the work, some paragraphs, indeed, being in- serted by mistake, in the wrong division. By means, how- ever, of the analytical table of Contents, with cross refer- ences, and a copious alphabetical Index, it is hoped that any subject or name can readily be found. Spencer F. Baied. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, February 10, 1875. TABLE OF CONTENTS." 5f PREFACE Page iii GENERAL SUMMARY OF PROGRESS xix A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY (xix) 1 (a.) MATHEMATICS. Pure Mathematics : Histon- of Logarithmic Tables, 24. Applied Math- ematics. See Astronomy ; General Physics ; Geography. (b.) ASTRONOMY. Interstellar Space : On the Existence of a Resisting Medium in Space, 51. The Nebulas: Great Nebula in Argus, 30; Nebular Theory, 38. The Stars : Heis' Star Atlas, 1 ; American Star Catalogue, 1 ; Newcomb's Catalogue of Thirty-six Fundamental, 22 ; Argelander on Distribution of, 36 ; Diameter of, 37 ; Faint Variable Stars and Asteroids, 60 ; Stellar Photome- try, 58; Supposed Companion of Procyon, 25. The Solar System : Stock- \vell on Stabilit}"- of, 38. The Sun : Apparent Variation in Diameter, 2, 41 ; its Spots, 3, 4, 40 ; Connection of Spots with INIagnetism and Auroras, 46, 47 ; with Temperature and Rain, 100, 123 ; its Crust, 52 ; Protuberances, 3,4,40; Constitution of, 42; its Atmosphere in General, 23 ; the Red Flames, 49 ; Spectral Phenomena, 40 ; do. of Limb and Centre, 45 ; its Temperature, 43 ; Daily Photographs, 60 ; Nature of Sunlight, 137 ; Solar Heat Reflected from Lake Geneva, 155 ; Chemical Force of Solar Rays, 186. The Planets. In General: Novel Relations among, 6; New Asteroids in 1873, 7, 49 ; Aster- oids and Faint Variable Stars, 61 ; Urcmus : Moons of, 8 ; New Tables of, 17; Saturn: Rings of, 61; Jupiter: Mass of, 7; Changes of Surface, 8; Orbit of, 22 ; Eclipse of Satellites, 50 ; Venus : Transit of, 9, 52 ; Earth : Rotation on its Axis, 28; Mars: Schroeter on, 31 ; Kaiser on, 32; Vulcan: 61. The Moon : White Appearances in, 8 ; Heat radiated from, 54 ; Influence on Weather, 98. Meteoroids or Shooting-stars : Origin of, 9 ; Showers of Nov. 27, 1872, 10 ; Meteor of June 17, 1873, 55 ; Altitude of, 55 ; an Incen- diary Meteorite, 33 ; Meteoric Dust in Snow, 209. See also Meteorology. Comets : Origin of, 9 ; Cometary Star Shower, 12 ; Biela's Comet, 10, 56, 59 ; New Comets, 33, 56. The Aurora : Foster's Theory of, 12 ; Aurora of 1872, and Ground Currents, 13 ; Connection with Magnetism and Sun Spots, 46, 47. Miscellaneous : Telegraphic Longitudes, 18 ; Measurement of an Arc of the Meridian, 23,233 ; Exchange of Astronomical Discoveries by the Atlantic Cable, 37 ; Amateur Astronomy in America, 2. Observatories and * lu the arrangement of articles in the body of the work, it was found to be difficult to place them iu systematic sequence, especially as many of them belonged really un- der more than one subject. The present systematic Table of Contents is intended to remedy any misplacement, and bring together under one head all articles or para- graphs belonging together, i-epeating the references when necessary. The references in Roman letters preceding the page references of the respective headings relate to the pages of the introductory "Summary." VI TABLE OF CONTENTS. Instruments : Reorganization of French Observatories, 14 ; Liverpool Ob- servatory, 19 ; Edinburgh, 62 ; Tashkend, 17 ; Cincinnati, 15, 3-1 ; Columbia College, IG; Alleghany, Regulation of Time by, IG; Annual Report of, 21; Prime Vertical Transit at Lisbon, 57; Power of Small Telescopes, 152; Mending a Broken Ubject-glass, 175. B. TERRESTRLIL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY (xxvi, xxvii) G3 (a.) TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS. The Land. Earthquakes: Earthquake Waves, 65 ; inltaly,92; Fo?canof 5; Eruption of Vesuvius, 26; in Iceland, 201 ; Miscellaneous : Amount of Force derived from the Sun's Heat, 63 ; Rate of Increase of Heat in Penetrating the Earth, 65 ; Influence of Forests on the Temperature of the Ground, 8 ; Local Deviation of the Plumb-line, 91 ; Foucault Pendulum Experiment, 95 ; Density of the Earth, 120 ; Terrestrial Magnetism : Terrestrial Mag- netism and Barometric Fluctuations, 149; Secular Magnetic Variation in New York, 174 ; Connection of Sun Spots and Auroras with, 46, 47 ; Ground Currents and the Aurora of 1872, 13 ; Electric Storm of Jan. 7, 1873, 71. The Interior Waters : Observations on River Temperatures, 63, 64 ; Com- position of Dead Sea Water, 179. The Ocean : Cruise of School-ship Mer- cury, 65 ; Secular Variation in Level of Ocean, 92 ; Movement of Waves in Oceans and Harbors, 118 ; Anti-Gulf-Stream in West Indies, 121 ; Cold Cur- rent off Coast of Brazil, 122 ; Effect of Ocean Currents on the Climate of Norway, 99 ; Storm Chart of the Atlantic, 123. See also the Ocean, under Geoguapiiy. (b,) METEOROLOGY. General Climatolog'y : Meteorology in Canada, 76 ; in Russia, 77 ; in the Argentine Republic, 78 ; in Havana, 82 ; American Signal-service Weather Bureau, 74; International Weather Telegraphy, 78; Prestelon Storm Warn- ings, 101; Descriptive Meteorology, 116; Dove on Climate, 79; Climate of Norway as affected by Ocean Currents, 99 ; Influence of Moon on Weather, 98; of Sun Spots, 100, 123; Cyclones and Water-spouts, 107 ; Storm Charts of the Atlantic, 123 ; Storms of Northern Europe, 87 ; Great Nova Scotia Storm, 97; Meteorology of the Doldrums, 117; Diffusion of Carbonic Acid in the Air, 167 ; Blue Color of the Sky, 230. Atmospheric Electricity : Sources of, 82, 113 ; Edlund's Theory of, 114; Silent Dissipation of, 173 ; Dangers of Lightning, 90 ; Lightning Conduct- ors, 111 ; Lightning Strokes, 113 ; Analysis of Lightning Flash, 127 ; Meas- ure of its Duration, 128. Atmospheric Pressure and the Winds : Barometric Determination of Altitudes, 91 ; Semidiurnal Variation of the Barometer, 103 ; New Barome- ter, 116; Relation between Barometric Fluctuations and Terrestrial jNIag- netism, 149 ; Balloon Ascensions, 95, 96, 124 ; Upper Currents of Air, 104 ; Easterly Current in England, 88 ; Typhoons of China and Japan, 105 ; Cy- clones, 107 ; Transfer of Sand from Africa to Italy by Sirocco, 233. Temperatures : Discordance in Arctic Temperatures, 67 ; Variation in the Heat of the Earth at DifTerent Depths, 65 ; Influence of Forests on Tem- perature of the Ground, 81; Solar Heat reflected from Lake Geneva, 155; Line of I'crpctual Snow, 85. Moisture: Rain-fall in Jerusalem, G7; Drying up of Santa Cruz, 71; Rain-fall and tlie Barbadoes Sugar-crop, 109 : Sun Spots and Rain-fall, 123; TABLE OF CONTENTS. yn Relation of Forests to Rain-fall, 70; Adirondack State Park and Rain-fall, 84 ; Line of Perpetual Snow, 85 ; Rain-gauges at Sea, 73 ; AVater-spouts and Cyclones, 107 ; Unvarying Course of Cirrus Clouds, 68 ; Poey's Classifica- tion of Clouds, 86 ; Formation of Clouds, 89; Altitude of Clouds, 102; Mete- oric Dust in Snow, 209 ; Hair Hygrometer versus Psychrometer, 115. Instruments : Carrying Thermometers, 74 ; Hair Hygrometer and Psy- chrometer, 115; New Barometer, 116. C. PHYSICS '. . (xxxvi) 125 General : Becquerel's Electro-capillary Pile, 125 ; Relation between Elec- tricity and Heat, 126; Electricity and Capillarity, 165; Tension of Vapors from Solids and Liquids, 144 ; Hinrichs' Theory of INIolecules, 164 ; Atomic Theory, 169 ; Diffusion of Carbonic Acid, 166 ; Dialysis of Vegetable Cuti- cles, 164 ; Dynamical Theory of Gases, 165 ; Theory of Rupert's Drops, 168 ; Mechanical Principles of Flying, 172 ; Vibration of Cords, 177. Hydrodynamics : Recent Researches in Hydraulics, 145 ; Flow of Water in Rivers and Canals, 167. Sound : Mayer's Discoveries in Acoustics, 129 ; New Method of Analy- sis of Composite Sounds, 156 ; Harmonic Echoes, 163 ; Acoustics of Large Rooms, 176 ; Vibration of Cords, 177 ; Lissajous' Phonoptometer, 142. Light : Sensibility of Selenium to Light, 127 ; New Determination of Velocity, 128 ; Polarization by Reflection, 141 ; Rotation of Plane of Polar- ization under Magnetic Influences, 148 ; Spectral Phenomena : New Spec- troscope Micrometer, 136 ; Spectra of Simple and Compound Bodies, 153 ; for Solar Spectroscopy, see Astroxo^iy, the Sun ; Nature of Sunlight, 137 ; Actinic Power of Sunlight, 175 ; Intensity of Fraunhofer Lines, 174 ; Irra- diation, 141; Dififraction Gratings, 154; Mechanical Combination of Colors, 155; Optical Telegraphy, 161; Effect of Light on Electric Currents, 150 ; Blue Color of the Sky, 230; Double -image Micrometer, 136; Power of Small Telescopes, 152. Heat : Best P^^rometer, 142; Solar Heat Reflected from Lake Geneva, 155. Electricity : Telegraphic Longitudes, 18 ; Signal Telegraphy and the Herring Fi3her}^ 73 ; Telegraphic Line to Australia, 125 ; Spontaneous Elec- tric Currents, 126 ; Electricity of Glycerine, 133 ; of Crystals, 133 ; Dissipa- tion of Electricity in Gases, 134 ; Silent Dissipation of Electricity, 173 ; Nat- ure of Electricity, 140; Electric Condensation, 150; Electric Current as Af- fected by Light, 150 ; Effect of Galvanic Currents on Metallic Conductors, 151 ; Relation of Electricity to Capillarity, 166. See also Telegraphs, under Engineering and Mechanics, and A tmospheric Electricity, under Mete- orology. Magnetism : Protection of Ships' Compasses, 138 ; Ships' Magnetism, 146 ; Magneto-Electric Induction, 139 ; Best Condition for Electro-Magnets, 147 ; Influence of Magnetic Power of Steel on its Temper, 148. See also Terrestrial Magnetism, under Terrestrial, Physics. D. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY (xxxvii) 179 The Elements and their Simpler Combinations : Selenium, Sensibility to Light, 127 ; Gold in Sea-water, 180 ; Antimony, Explosive, 181 ; Indium, Position of, 188 ; Copper in Green Feathers of Parrot, 188 : in Turacine, 190 ; Phosphorus, Action in Coal on Iron, 189 ; Amorphous Red Phosphorus, 182; viii TABLE OF CONTENTS. Chlorine, Activity in the Dark, 145 ; Hydrogen, reducing Power of Nascent, 180; Ozone in India lluhber, 182; Nitrogen: Solidification of Nitrous Oxide (ias, 183; Carbon: Lii^uid Carbonic Acid, 182; Diffusion of Carbonic Acid, U!G. Organic Compounds, (ilycerine: Electricity of, 133 ; Alcohol: Alcohols from Flint and Quartz, liS."); Alcoholic Fermentation, 184; Hydrocarbons : Fichtelitc, 180 ; Thallene, 181 ; Yiridin, 181. Miscellaneous: Atomic Theory, 1G9; Liquefaction of Gases, 187 ; Elec- tricity of Crystals, 133; Chemical Force of the Sun's Kays, 186; Solvent Power of Liquid Carbon Dioxide, 189; Action of Silicate of Soda on Fer- ments, 184; (icrm Theory of Fermentation, 184; Separation of Digestive Ferments, 187. E. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY (xliv) 191 (a.) MINERALOGY. Iron in Australia, 211 ; Tin in Australia, 191. The Tourmaline, 201. The Diamond not in Xantho')hyllite, 200. Meteorites: Crust of, 194; Black Incrustation of, 197; Meteoric Dust in Snow, 209. New Species: Maxite, a New Ore of Lead, 194; Seebachite, 192; Tammite, 192; Manganophvll, 193; Kryokonite, 193; Zeunerite, 193; Syngenite, 193. See also, under Summary, Miseualogy. (b.) GEOLOGY. General : Antiquity of the Guadaloupe Bone Breccia, 197 ; Flora of the Pliocene in France, 198; Sub-Wealden of England, 211; Nature of Loess, 201; Fossil Plants of the Northern Hemisphere, 210; Enlargement of Coast by Marine Yegetation, 214; Primordial Fossils in the Rocky Mount- ains, 199; Age of Wyoming Coal, 199; Upper Coal Measures AYest of the Alleghanies, 200; Industrial Employment of Natural Gases, 208; Earth- quake in Italy, 92; Yolcanic Eruption in Iceland, 201. Glaciers and the Ice Period : Remnant of the Ice Period in Scotland, 197 ; Kryokonite, 193 ; Glaciers in the IMerced Mountains of California, 197. Economic Geology: Iron in Australia. 211 ; Tin in Australia, 191 ; Lo- cality of the Material of Chinese Porcelain, 191 ; Nitre in South America, 191; Pitchblende in Colorado, 192; Dolomites of the United States, 192; Russian Mineral Phosphates, 211; Coal and Bitumen: Coal in Peru, 199; Wyoming Coal, 199 ; West Alleghany Coal Measures, 200 ; California Pe- troleum, 207, , Geological Reports ani Explorations: Survey of Canada in 1871-2, 202 ; of Indiana in 1871-2, 202 ; of New Jersey in 1872, 203 ; of Oliio, 204, 205; Mining Statistics for 1872, 203. See also Gkoguaphv. F. GEOGRAPHY (liv) 213 (a.) GEODESY, NAVIGATION, AND HYDROGRAPHY. Measurement of an Arc of a Meridian : in the Centre of Europe, 23 ; in Spain and Algiers, 233 ; Telegraphic Longitudes, 18 ; Barometric Determi- nation of Altitudes in the Rocky INIoimtains, 91; Ascertaining a Ship's Place at Sea. 231 ; Sounding-lines of the Challenger, 235. (b.) PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Enlargement of Coast-land by Marine Yegetation, 214 ; Rain-fall : IJelation TABLE OF CONTENTS. ix of Forests to, 70 ; Drying up of the Island of Santa Cruz, 71 ; Adirondack State Park, 84. (C.) EXPLORATIONS AND RESEARCHES. General : Tlie Unexplored Regions of the World, 213. The Ocean and its Depths. The Atlantic: Cruise of the Challenger, 243; The Mediteri-anean : Life in, 213; Exploration of its Algieran Coast, 242; the Adriatic in 1870, 215; Off the Coast of North America: Gulf ofStLawrence in 1872,210; St. George's Bank,218; Improved Dredges, 215. The Arctic Regions : Arctic Committee in Great Britain, 225 ; Proper Gateway to the Pole, 226 ; The German North Polar Expedition of 1870, 223 ; The American Polaris Expedition, 237 ; King Carl Land, 220 ; Kecent Explorations in Spitzbergen, 262 ; Drift-wood in Nova Zembla, 225 ; Par- ry's Expedition, 221. The Antarctic Regions : Proposed Exploration of Dr. Neumayer, 221. North America. A lasha : Dall's Explorations, 246 ; British North America: Canadian in 1873, 235; Dacota: Northern Boundary Survey, 257 ; Yellowstone Expedition, 261 ; Rochy Mountain Region : Yellowstone Park Report for 1872, 222 ; Barlow's Exploration of Country in 1872, 232 ; Do. of Captain W. A. Jones in 1873, 254 ; Hayden's Explorations, 226, 232, 236,248; Wheeler's Explorations in 1871,223; in 1873,251; Powell's Ex- ploration of the Colorado, 258. Middle America : American Survey for In- teroceanic Canal, 255. South America : Brazilian Coast Pilot, 237 ; As- cent of Mount Meiggs, 228. Polynesia and the Indian Ocean. Moluccas : Bernstein's Travels, 229 ; New Guinea : Meyer, 230 ; Albertis, 237. Asia. Siberia : Russian Explorations in, 229 ; China : of the Archiman- drite Palladius, 224 ; of the Abbe David, 234 ; Palestine : British Surveys in, 225 ; Beke on the True Mount Sinai, 234. Africa : Nachtigal in Central, 230. Australia : Giles' Explorations in 1872, 231. See also Geographical Summary. G. NATURAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY ,(lxxv, Lxxxii) 263 (a.) NATURAL HISTORY IN GENERAL. Microscopy : Nutrition of Vibrios, 268 ; Ehrenberg on IMicroscopic Life, 269 ; Smith on Diatoms, 270 ; Cohn on Bacteria, 373 ; Formation of Pig- ments by Bacteria, 269 ; Peculiar Bodies in Blood of Fever Patients, 300. Darwinism : Huizinga on Abiogenesis, 299. MiEcellaneous : Effect of Seasons on Distribution of Animals and Plants, 263 ; Acclimatization So- ciety of Cincinnati, 265 ; of Paris, 338 ; Anderson School of Natural History, 266 ; Gay's History of Chili, 268. (b.) ZOOLOGY IN GENERAL. Taxidermy : Carbolic Solution for Anatomical Preparations, 270. Muse- ums : At Princeton, the Oldest in America, 264 ; Godeffroy, at Hamburg, 268 ; of Yale College, 316. Menageries : Zoological Society, London, 267 ; Central Park, New York, 338. Aquaria : Brighton, 267, 336 ; Proposed, in Central Park, New York. 338. Zoological Stations : Anderson School, at Penikese, 266. Zoological Explorations : Of the Challenger, 294 ; of Prof. Cope, 319. See also Explorations, under Geography. 1* TABLE or CONTENTS. (C.) FAUNAS. Of St. George's Bank and Adjacent Waters, 218. (d.) ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY IN GENERAL. The Skeleton : (irowth of Bone in Young Animals, 347 ; The Nervous System : CJarrod on Origin of Nerve Force, 323 ; Mesmerism in Animals, 345 ; Color Blindness, 32G. The Circulatory System : Blood Corpuscles of Salmonidie, 299; of Batrachians, 325; Number of Blood Corpuscles, 308 ; Influence of Compressed Air, 327 ; Absolute Amount of Blood in Animals, 326. The Digestive Apparatus : Digestion of Non-nitrogenous Food, 300; Condition of the Liver during Lactation, 325. General : Inoculation of Healthy Animals with Tuberculous Matter, 273 ; Effect of Violet Light on Silk-worms, 274. (e.) VERTEBRATES IN GENERAL. "Sea Serpent" in the Bay of I'anama, 273; the Classes and Relationships of Yertebrata, 343 ; New iioae Cave, 309 ; New Vertebrate Fossils, 309, 315. (f.) MAMMALS. General Anthropology: British Anthropological Institute, 274; British Archaeological Convention in 1872, 276. Man in the Old World : The Owl-faced Minerva, 224 ; Antiquities of the Scy thia of Herodotus, 275 ; Antiquity of Man m Corsica, 279 ; The Cesnola Collection, 312 ; British Prehistoric Monuments, 276 ; Antiquity of Man in Great Britain, 278 ; Prehistoric Eemains in Iceland, 277 ; Prehistoric Sacrificial Mound in Aus- tria, 277 ; Diluvial Skull of Nagy Kap, Hungary, 280 ; New Discoveries at Mentone, 280; Canstadt Eace of Mankind, 312; Ethnology of European Peat Bogs, 341 ; Lake Dwellings near Leipsic, 299 ; Alleged Occurrence of Man in the Miocene of Turkey, 279 ; Assyrian Tradition of the Deluge, 274; Publication of Assyrian and Egyptian Texts, 310; Origin of the Maoris, 275 ; Geological Age of the Moa and Moa Hunters, 281. Man in the New World: Prehistoric Cannibalism in Florida, 281; Prehistoric Mica Mines in North Carolina, 282; Prehistoric Eaces of America, 311 ; Aboriginal Money in America, 310 ; Antiquities of Southern Indians, 348 ; Mummied Head of Todas, or Peruvian Indians, 339 ; Alleged Fossil Hu- man Bones on the La Plata, 336. Other Mammals. General : New Eocene IMammals, 285 ; New Fossil Car- nivora, 285 ; Glyptodont Mammals, 302 ; Megatherian IMammals, 318 ; Ne^v Rocky INIountain Fossils, 348 ; International Exhibition of Horns, 303 ; jNIaynard on Florida Mammals, 287. Special : Baby Hippopotamus in Lon- don, 284 ; Pigmy Liberian Hippopotamus, 284 ; Fallow Deer Indigenous in Europe, 284 ; Orohippus agilis, 286 ; Fossil Horses of Southern Europe, 301 ; Relation of the Coyote to the Pointer Dog, 314; Fossil Lemur in France, 314. (g.) BIRDS. General : Differences between Columbaj and Gallina;, 287 ; Bird Collections in London, 336 ; Number of Species of American Birds, 340. Special : Geo- logical Age of Moa, 281 ; Ichthyornis, a New Fossil Bird, 288 ; Odontojytenjx, a New Fossil Bird, 349 ; Fossil Black-headed Duck in Belgium, 303 ; Ento- zoa and Grouse Disease, 295 ; IMortality in Scotch Grouse, 315 ; Acquired Hal^its of the Tumbler Pigeon, 349. (h.) REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS. Poison Serpents of India. 290; Development of a Guadaloupe Frog, 290. TABLE OF CONTENTS. xi (I.) FISHES. General : Geograpliical Distribution of Percoid Fishes, 291 ; Absence of Fislies above the Yosemite Falls, 305 ; Alleged Shower of Fish-scales, 350. Special : Blood Corpuscles of the Salmonidse, 299 ; Reproduction in the Eel, 306 ; a Large Fish, 317 ; Habits of Black Bass, 322 ; Food of Basking Shark, 328; New Scaphirhynchus from Turkestan, 336; Paddle-fish in Chautauqua Lake, 342. See also Pisciculture and the Fisheries. (Ic.) ARTICULATES. Insects. General: Experiments on Aquatic Articulates, 292 ; Influence of External Conditions on the Structure of Insects, 307 ; Lepidoptera : Effect of Violet Light on Silk-w-orms, 27-4 ; Proper Temperature for Rear- ing Silk-worms, 412 ; ControlUng Sex in Butterflies, 294, 329 ; Danais ar- chippus near Melbourne, 308 ; Urania leilus at Panama, 337, 352 ; Distribu- tion of California Moths, 330 ; Other Orders : Protective Fluid of Cymbex, 293 ; Do Flies Eat Pollen ? 293 ; Phylloxera, or Grape-vine Louse Insect, 293, 393, 421 ; Hibernation of Flies, 352. Crustaceans : Zoological Posi- tion of the King-crab, or Limulus, 291 ; Habits of Craw-fish, 351. Entozoa and Entophyta : Blood Entozoon, 295 ; Relation of Entozoa to the Grouse Disease, 295 ; Entophyta in Man, 332. (1.) MOLLUSKS. Geographical Distribution of Land Shells in North America, 320 ; Terres- trial Mollusks of the Bahamas, 333 ; Introduction of Land Shells into Scot- land, 322 ; Shells of Rhode Island, 339 ; Nature of Ajjtychus, 334 ; Giant Cuttle-fish in Newfoundland, 296. (m.) RADIATES. Agassiz's Revision of the Echini, 265 ; AUman on Tubularian Hydroids, 296 ; Pavonaria BlaJcei, 332 ; Fossil Corals of the West Indies, 340. (11.) PROTOZOA. Haeckel on Calcareous Sponges, 298. H. BOTANY (ciii) 353 Floras : Botany of Norway as Affected by Ocean Currents, 99 ; of Island of St. Paul in the Indian Ocean, 355 ; Ancient Vegetation of Great Britain, 371 ; Plants of Polaris Bay, 378 ; New United States Species in 1873, 375 ; Canadian Fossil Plants, 378. Forests : Relation of Forests to Rain-fall, 70 ; to Temperature of Ground, 81 ; Influence of Forests on Ozone, 426 ; Forest Growth in the Wabash Valley, 367. Publications : Sachs' New Text-book, 373 ; Completion of De CandoUe's Prodromus, 379. Vegetable Physiology : Evaporation from Plants, 355, 862 ; Movement of Sap, 360; Germination: Proteine -granules, and Asparagine in, 357; Change in OH of Seed in, 360; Change of Temperature during, 360; Growth of Plants: Influence of Atmospheric Pressure on, 372; of Electricity on, 373 ; Growth of Seedlings, 374 ; Fertilization : Cross-fertilization, 371 ; in Grasses, 358 ; of Yucca, 362. Constituents of Plants : Lithium in, 366 ; Composition of Withered Leaves, 380. General : Why the Winter of 1871-2 was Injurious to Plants, 353 ; Dis- tribution of Seeds by Winds, 353; Preservation of Fleshy Fungi, 271. Particular Kinds of Plants and their Products : Atropine in Plants, xii TABLE OF CONTENTS. SCO; Cinchona in Jamaica, 3G1 ; Milk-troe, 3G5 ; Eucalyptus, 380; Yucca, Fertilization of. 302 ; Sequoia of California, 363 ; Mistletoe, Propagation of, 369 ; Growth of Algoe in Aquaria, 369 ; Equisetums and Calamites, 370. See also Agiucllture and Rural Economy. I. AGKICULTUUE and KURAL economy (cvi) 381 In General : Tenth Report of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, 418. The Air : Detection of Organic Matter in, 381 ; Protection of Vineyards in France by Steam, 381. The Water (including Irrigation) : Barbadocs Rain-fall and the Sugar Crop, 108; InHuence of Spring ^^'atcr on Meadow-grass, 386; Failure of Sewage Irrigation, 409 ; Exhaustion of Hay and Grain by Rain, 414. The Soil : Comparative Temperafures, 381 ; Production of Nitrites, 382 ; Action of Saline Solutions ou Feldspar, 383 ; Importance of Silex in the Soil, 384 ; Function of Organic Substances in the Soil, 385. Manures and Fertilizers : Influence of Spring Water on ^Meadow-grass, 386 ; Failure of Sewage Irrigation, 409 ; Effect of Different ^Manures on the I'roduction of Opium, 386 ; Fish Guano, 387 ; Proposed Substitute for Pe- ruvian Guano, 387 ; Curasao Guano, 405 ; Improved Use of Stable Maniures, 388 ; Sea-weed Manures, 395 ; Natural Phosphates, 406 ; Effect of, on the Growth of Plants, 410 ; Ncav Phosphate Fertilizer, 417 ; Nitrogen in Fer- tilizers, 410 ; Effect of Manures on AVeeds, 417; Conversion of Bones into Fertilizers, 425 ; Artificial Humus, 405. Useful Animals. Food : Effect of Food on the Urine, 396 ; Manage- ment and Rearing : Substitute for Milk to Calves, 390; Proper Light for Stable Windows, 391; Temperature for Silk-worm Houses, 412; Diseases and Treatment : Carbolic Acid in Poultr3'-houses, 389 ; Colic in Horses, 391 ; Silk-worm Disease, 391 ; its Decline, 392, 419 ; its Cure, 392 ; Particular Species: Breeding Rabbits for Food, 411; Rearing Ostriches for their Feathers, 388 ; Hatching Eggs of Ostriches in the Incubator, 389 ; Ash- colored Turkeys, 411; Silk -worm. Proper Temperature for Rearing, 412; Destruction of Eggs by Bermestes, 413. Noxious Animals : The Phyllox- era, or Grape-vine Louse, 293, 393, 421 ; Sulphuret of Calcium a Remedy for, 394; Vermin Asphyxiator, 394; Destruction of Insects in Poultry- houses, 394 ; of ]May-bugs, 392 ; Dermestes in Silk-Avorm Eggs, 413 ; Ex- termination of Field-mice, 412. Animal Products of the Farm : Value of Unwashed Wool, 415 ; Uses of Suint, 417. For Butter, Milk, Talloic, see Domestic Economy. Forestry : Congressional Action respecting Forests, 403 ; Influence of Forests on Ozone, 426 ; Relation of Forests to Rain-fall, 70 ; to the Temper- ature of the Ground, 81 ; Forest Growth in the AV'abash Valle}', 367. Vegetable Farm Products. T/ie Potato : Arresting its Decay, 396 ; Disease in (ireat Britain, 397; AVhy no Remedy? 398 ; Alleged New Disease of, 414 ; Prize for Best Essay on Disease of, 420 ; U^tilizing when Diseased, 396; Topping the Stalks, 422 ; Timothy Grass: Disease of, 400 ; Clover: When to Cut for Hay, 416; Miscellaneous : Spontaneous Combustion of Hay, 423 ; Fffcct of Time of Seeding on Grain, 400 ; Apparatus for Drying (Jrain, 41(i; Preventing Fine Fruit from Rotting, 399; Hastening the Rip- ening of Fruit. 415: Advancing the (Jermination of Seeds, 399; Seedling TABLE OF CONTENTS. xiii Plums, 400', Utilization of the Cat-tail, 423 ; Tea-culture in Japan, 401; Influence of Sulphuric Acid on Wine, 403 ; Preservation of Wine by Heat, 404, 482. J. PISCICULTURE AND THE FISHERIES (ex) 427 (a.) THE FISHERIES. Exhibitions : British Exhibition at Yienna, 427 ; German Exhibition at Vienna, 429 ; Fisher\^ Models at Copenhagen, 429. Legislaticn and Protection : German Fishery Laws, 433 ; Regulation of Seal Fisheries in Newfoundland, 430, 454 ; Fish Inspection Laws of Can- ada, 455; Fishery Laws of Pennsylvania, 439; of Michigan, 441; of Ohio, 457. State Commissions. Maine : Sixth Report for 1872, 436 ; Rhode Island : Report for 1872, 427 ; Xeiv York: for 1872, 438; Pennsylvania, ^^^', Mich- igan, AW -^ 6^/^ JO, 441,457. General Statistics and Reports : Canadian for 18G9, 427 ; German Re- port on American Fisheries and Fish-cidture, 4.58 ; Fisheries of France in 1871, 453 ; of the Caspian Sea, 459 ; Egyptian for 1872, 460 ; Fresh-water, of India, 4G5 ; Importation of Cured Fish into England in 1873, 460. Special Fisheries. The Herring: Winter Fishery at Gloucester, 431 ; Trade in Winter Herring, 432 ; Emden Herring Fishery, 431 : Signal Teleg- raphy and the Herring Fishery, 73 ; Salmon : Trade in California Salmon, 433 ; Shipments Eastward of California Salmon, 433 : Improvement of the British Salmon Fisheries, 433 ; Cod: Fisheries in the Pacific in 1873,458; Halibut: Gloucester Fisheries of, 460; Seals: Protection of, 430; Oil, 430; Sponges : The Sponge Trade in the Bahamas, 569. (b.) FISH-CULTURE. Associations : American Fish-culturists' Association, 434, 463. Establishment of the United States at Bucksport, Me., 443. See also Aquaria, under General Natural History. General Considerations : Cidture of Fish in Ditches and Ponds, 443 ; Sea-fish in Fresh Water, 435 ; Treatment of Fish-ponds, 452 ; Price of Amer- ican Fry in England, 459 ; Influence of External Pressure on the Life of Fishes, 467. Particular Species. The Salmon : Marking, 444 ; Shipment of Eggs to New Zealand, 445; their Arrival, 462; Taking the California Species with the Hook, 464; see also under Fisheries; Trout: Trout in New Zealand, 447 ; Food of Small Trout, 447 ; Rate of Increase of Growth, 448 ; Hybrids of Salmon and Trout, 442; Shad: Occurrence in the Mississippi, 448; in the Altamaha, 450 ; in the Alleghany, 462 ; in the Sacramento, 449 ; Striped Bass: Artificial Hatching of. 450; Sterlet: Culture of, 452; Craw-Jish: Rearing in Ponds, 450 ; Cuttle-fish : Use as Food, 487. K. DOMESTIC AND HOUSEHOLD ECONOMY 469 (a.) THE DWELLING. The Building : Plaster as a Protection against Fire, 469 ; Steam as a Fire- extinguisher, 470 ; Burglar-proof Screw, 505 ; The Furniture : Travelers' Beds, 469 ; Cleaning Silver, 504. (b.) LIGHTING, HEATING, AND VENTILATION. Lighting : Substitute for Coal Gas, 470 ; New Hydrocarbon Gas, 490 ; Gas by Eveleigh's Process, 490 ; Influence of Rubber Tubes on Illumination, xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS. 472; Testing Mineral Oils, 506; Silbcr's Process of Illumination, 508 ; Illu- mination by Electrical Light, 507; Ozokerite CancUes,473; Matches with- out Sulphur, 490; Coating for Lamp-shades, 472; Purification of Tallow, 596. Heating : Flame of Compressed Gas, 491 ; Improved Bunsen Lamp, 472. Ventilation : Substitute for Double Windows, 495. (C.) CLOTHING AND ADORNMENT. Hair Fradicatt.r, 4S1); Kc-latiun of the Air to Clothing, 492; Protection of Clutliint; against Moths, 502. (d.) THE LAUNDRY. Improved Soap, 472 ; Proper Combinations in Soap, 487; Washing Wool- ens, 474 ; Cleaning Silk and Woolens, 474 ; Prevention of the Escape of Charcoal Fumes in Ironing, 474 ; Removal of Ink-stains, 496. (C.) THE TABLE. Apparatus and Utensils : Enamel for Copper Vessels, 475 ; Pitching Com- pound for Woollen Vessels, 489 ; Conical Waste-pipes, 496 ; Filters of Spun Glass, 489. Preparation of Food for the Table : I'reparation of Eels for Cooking, 485 ; Kendering Fowls Tender, 496 ; To Prevent Hardening of Pease in Boiling, 486. Its PreEervation : Parchment Paper for Sausage- skins, 496 ; Acetate of Soda as a Pickle, 476, 498 ; Rapid Pickling of INIeat, 478 ; New Process of Preserving Meat Fresh, 477 ; Preservation by Cold, 477 ; Theory of Preserving Animal Substances, 503. Transportation : of Spirits in Iron Vessels, 469 ; of ]Milk, 476. Substances used as Food : Butter : Washing, 480 ; Treatment when Rancid, 481 ; Proper Temperature of the Air in Making, 481 ; Shipping in Sealed Cans, 481 ; Determining Purity of, 503 ; Talloio : Purification for Culinary Purposes, 483, 596 ; Milk : Action of Microzymes on, 484 ; Advantages of Condensed, 497 ; Transportation of, 476 ; Adulteration of, 485 ; Meats : New Preparation of, 509 ; Value of Gel- atine as Food, 509 ; Conversion of Young Deer-horn into, 610 ; Cuttle-fish, 487 ; Jellies : Preparation of Currant Jelly, 488 ; Flou7- : Action of Sunlight on, 485 ; Vermicelli : Chinese Preparation of, 504 ; Soy : Chinese Prepara- tion of, 505 ; Tea : 474 ; Coffee : 474 ; Adulteration of, 487 ; Indigestibility of Cafe au Lait, 504 ; Wine : Preservation by Heat, 404, 482 ; Influence of Sul- phuric Acid on, 403; Beer: Preveitting its Acidification, 482; Made with- out Hops, 483. (f.) THE STABLE. Wagon Lubricant, 488 ; Keeping Harness Pliable, 489. (g.) MISCELLANEOUS. Petroleum for Cleaning Guns, 505 ; Improved Rifle, 510. L. MECHANICS AND ENGINEERING (cxviii) 511 (a.) MATERIALS. Mortars, Cements, and Slags : Comparison of Ancient Mortars, 527 ; INIa- rezzo Marble, 511; Imitation Marble, 512; Building-stone of Slag, Coal Ashes, etc., 512 ; Utilization of Furnace-slag, 527. Metal : General: Rela- tion of the Temper of Steel to its Magnetic Power, 148 ; Experiments on the Strength of Steel, 540 ; Testing the Quality of Iron, 515 ; Surface Hard- ening of Cast Iron, 513 ; Exportation of Iron to Great Britain, 526 ; Fur- jtures: Siemens' Regenerative Gas Furnace, 514; Defty's Puddling Fur- naro, 5J2; fni Mdiiiifarfiiro : Improvomont in Puddling. 51.'> : Direct TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV INIethod of Making Malleable, 523 ; New Method, 537 ; Bar-iron from Phos- phureted Cast Iron, 514 ; Rails : Production in the United States in 1872, 513. Wood : New Preservative of, 515 ; Preservation of Railroad Ties, 526 ; Eucalyptus for Timber, 516. (b.) CONSTRUCTION. Vessels : Protection of Ships against Torpedoes, 522 ; Detection of Leaks in Ships, 537. Canals : United States Irrigation Commission in California, 511. Tunnels: Sutro Tunnel Commission, 516. Telegraphs: Injuries to Cables by Marine Animals, 529 ; Entanglement of Whale in, 540. Build- ings : "Water-proof Coating for Walls, 517 ; Treatment of New, Damp Dwell- ing-rooms, 517 ; Proper Construction of Chimneys, 518 ; Acoustics of Large Rooms, 519, 528. (C.) MOTORS. Coal : Desulphurizing Coke, 539. Electricity : The Gramme Electric Ma- chine, 531. Gunpowder Pile-driver, 538. The Winds: Turbine Wind Motor, 538. Steam-boilers : Experiments on Boiler Explosions, 520; Glyc- erine as an Anti-incrustator, 520 ; Value of the Steam-jacket for Engines, 521; Casing for Boilers, 530: Siemens' Steam Motor, 537. Railroads Roadway: Preservation of Railroad Ties, 527; Road in Nicaragua, 675 Equipment: Wendt's Torsion Car-spring, 521; Screw Railway Brake, 521 Westinghouse Air Brake, 532 ; Railway Master Mechanics' Association, 539. Telegraphs : Optical Telegraphy, 161 ; see also Electricity, under Phys- ics. Balloons: Scientific Balloon Ascension, 95, 96, 124; Long Voyage, 534. Aeronautics : Mechanical Principles of Flying, 534. Signals : Sig- nal Lights, 540. Explosives : Explosion of Wet Gun-cotton, 522, 543 ; Im- proved Gun-cotton, 543 ; Explosive Paper Cartridges, 535; Action of Dy- namite, 535 ; Fire-proof Powder-chests, 610. M. TECHNOLOGY (cxxiv) 545 (a.) THE LIBERAL ARTS. Printing and Stamping ; Inerasible Stamping-ink, 545 ; Blue Stamping- ink, 546; Nickel-plated Type, 547. Engraving and Lithographing : Liq- uid for Etching Copper, 548; Improvement in Photolithography, 611. Writing : Red Indelible Ink, 545 ; Portable Ink, 546 ; Inerasible Writing- ink, 546, 601. Drawing and Copying: Improved Tracing-paper, 545; Drawing-ink, 546 ; Copying Designs, 601 ; Amsler's Planimeter, 612. Pho- tographing : Gummate of Iron Photographic Paper, 574; Cotton for Col- lodion, 574; Reducing Intensity of a Negative, 574 ; Persistent Activity of a Bichromate Image, 575 ; Szekely's BriUiant Photographs, 576 ; Improve- ment in Photolithography, 611. Modeling and Casting : Coating of Plas- ter Casts, 576 ; Reproducing Art-models, 611; Phosphorus Bronze, 609 ; Al- loys of Manganese, 613; Patina on Bronze, 548. Painting and Interior Decoration : Material for Mouldings, 572. (b.) THE MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL ARTS. Spinning, Weaving, and Felting : Improvement in Glass-spinning, 565 ; International Standard for Numbering Yarn, 613; Treatment of Hair for Felting, 549, 571. Sizing and Dressing : Improved Flour Paste, 550; Pres- ervation of Teasel-cards, 603. Water-proofing of Fabrics, 575. Cleaning and Bleaching : Removal of Oily Matters, 549 ; of Gum from Silk, 550 ; Bisulphide of T^ime for Scouring Wool. 597 : Sulphates of Soda and Potash xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS. in Bleaching, 0)02; Bleaching Discolored Flannels, 602 ; Drying Cloth Fab- rics, 577. Dyeing and Printing-, Mordants: Apple-juice for Fixing Colors, 552; Alum for Mordanting Woolens, 552; Fixing Aniline on Cotton, 580 ; Dye- stuffs: Sidorin-Yellow, 551; (Irenade. 551; a New Dye, 552; Anthrapur- piirine, 577 ; I'lirpurinc. 578 ; New Aniline Red, 580 ; Brown for Woolen, 581 ; Artiticial Alizarine, 582 ; Aniline Black with Tungstate of Copper, 584; Cannelle Brown, G03 ; a New Dye, G03 ; Processes : Specks in Cochineal Dves, 553 ; Dyeing Silk, 578 ; Dying Kid Gloves, 579 ; Aniline Green on Straw, 581 ; Dyeing Feathers, 582 ; Green on Silk, G04; Hj-drosulphite of Soila in Dyeing Indigo, G14; Chamois on Half "Wool, G05. Antiseptic?, Preservatives, and Deodorizers: Carbolic Acid, 555 ; Fuchsin, 557; Sili- cate of Soda, 557 ; Preventing Mould on Mucilage, 585 : Removing Odor of Sulphide of Carbon, 5G-4. Painting, Staining, and Varnishing. Materials : Black Aniline Var- nish, 546; Varnish for Basket-ware, 557; Chinese Water-proof Varnish from Blood, 584; French Drying-varnish, 584; Aqueous Solution of Shellac, 555; Kubber-graphite Paint, 556; Rendering Lamb-black Miscible in Water, G12; Ebony Stain for Wood, 553; Processes: Plow to Varnish, 606. Oils and Wax : Bleaching Vegetable Oils, 550 ; Action of Sunlight on Olive-oil, 612 ; Extraction of Rape-seed Oil by Bisulphide of Carbon, 553 ; Quick-drying Oil, 584 ; Preventing Explosiveness of Petroleum, 554 ; Ex- plosive Oils, 585 ; Petroleum Oils, 655 ; Oil from Birds, 566 ; Ceresine, a Fos- sU Wax, 568 ; Chinese Peh-Lah Wax, 572. Plating or Coating with Metals : Moulds for Electrotypes, 547 ; Elec- tro-stannus Method, 558 ; Metallic Coating by the Wet Method, 589 ; Hot Gilding of Iron, 559 ; Tests for Gilding, 560 ; Gilding Glass, 562 ; Coating Fibres with Silver, 560 ; Silvering Glass Vessels, 561, 607 ; Mirrors for Re- flecting Telescopes, 593 ; Coating Vegetable Fabrics with Tin, 607 ; Coat- ing Copper Avith Iron, 562; Iron with Copper, 588 ; Zincing Iron, 587; Pyro- ]tlating, 550 ; Substituting Manganese for Nickel in Plating, 591. Weld- ing and Soldering : LTnion of Iron and Steel, 591. Cementing : Chalk and Soluble Glass, 557 ; Fastening IMetals on Glass, 605 ; Leather Glue, 569 ; Improved Gum- Arabic INIucilage, 605 ; Permanent Paste, 606. Temper- ing Steel Gravers, Drills, etc., 562 ; Hardening Steel Tools, 608. Casting and Fusing : Casting INIetals in a Vacuum, 591 ; Blow-pipe Furnace, 592; Wliite-^Metal Alloy for Machines, 563. Sundry Chemical Processes : Pu- ritication of Caustic Soda, 563 ; Preparation of Carbonate of Magnesia, 614 ; Chrome Alum, 695 ; Fluoride of Calcium, 608 ; Uses of Bisulphide of Car- bon, 596 ; Centrifugal Action in the Manufacture of Sugar, 564 ; Manu- facture of Coal-tar, 695. Raw or Simple Materials used in the Arts : Ruhher: Utilizing Waste, .^JG; Elastic Kul)b(T IJands, 569 ; Wool: Keeping Moist, 598 ; Treatment by (ilycerine, 598 ; Washing of, 599 ; Whitening, 602 ; *S'/7^-; Yellow Color of, 570 ; Silk without the Worm, 570 ; Improvement in the Manufacture of, .570; (klatine: Preparation of, 594 ; Conversion of Young Deer-horn into, GIO; Paper: Water-proof Pasteboard, 549 ; Artiticial Grass from Parch- ment Paper, 593; Vegetable ParchnK'nt,.^)93 ; Litpiid Parchment, 60G; Man- ufucture of Piilj) from Wood, 5(i7, Utilizing Waste Products : Waste Rub- ber, 5.")(; -. Sc|arating Brass from I'urnace Slag, 5t>5; Extracting Wool from , TABLE OF CONTENTS. xvii Half-wool, 613. Adulterations : of Bone-dust bj' Vegetable Ivory, 558 ; of Madder, 573. Miscellaneous : Preservation of Teasel-cards, 603 ; Explosion in a Flour Mill, 609 ; Spontaneous Combustion of Oilj^ Cotton-waste, 609 ; New Ma- chine for Making Woodfen Boxes, 610 ; Coating Paper with Graphite, 564 ; Eevivification of Bone-black without Ignition, 565 ; Preparation of French Chalk, 570 ; Micro-chemical Exammation of Fibres, 572. N. MATEPJA MEDICA, THEPvAPEUTICS, AND HYGIENE 615 (a.) MATERIA MEDICA. Kemedies : Ozone Water, 620, 623 ; Bromide of Calcium, 621 ; Nitrite of Amyl, 621 ; Pruniis holdus, 623 ; Cod-liver Oil, 623, 644 ; Kumiss, 624, 626 ; Chloral, 626, 635 ; Quinine, 633 ; Propylamine, 636, 642 ; Trimethylamine, 636,637; Protoxide of Iron, 642; Hyoscyamus, 622 ; Belladonna and Phys- ostigma, 631. Anaesthetics : Methylene Ether, 619. Food : Artificial Fi- brine from the White of Egg, 642. General : Preservation of Unstable Remedies in Contact with Each Other, 620 ; Opium Production in Ger- many, 622 ; Laughter as a Remedial Operation, 630. (b.) DISEASES AND THEIR CURE. Diseases: Small-pox: Benefits of Vaccination, 616 ; Active Principle of Vaccine Virus, 617; Corm : Cure for, 616; Colds: Cure for Catarrh, 615; Theory of Taking Cold, 615 ; Rheumatism, 636, 637 ; Gout, Chloral in, 635 ; Goitre, 618 ; Cholera, 638 ; Malaria and Fevers : Treatment of Intermittent, by Carbolic Acid, 618; Constipation, 651; Burns from Phosphorus, 630; Toothache, Electricity for, 644 ; Asphyxia, Artificial Respiration for, 629 ; Drowning, Use of Heated Irons for Resuscitation, 629 ; Entozoa in Grouse Disease, 631; Gregarina in Human Hair, 619; Putrid Infection, 645 ; Striek- er on Septicaemia, 648 , Breant Prize to Chauveau, 628. Poisons : Phosphorus, 627 ; Mercurj-, 627 ; Nicotine in Tobacco Smoke, 628 ; Poisonous Metals, 632 ; Methylammonium Compounds, 641 ; Pahonim, 652 ; Snake Bites, 629 ; Chinese Remedy for Snake Bites, 630 ; Poisonous Woolens, 639. Antidotes: Turpentine for Phosphorus Poison, 627; for Mercurial Poisoning, 627. Miscellaneous : Signs of Death, 615 ; Sensation of Cold not Imparted by Cold Alcohol, 643 ; Laughter as a Remedy, 630 ; Chloroform in Examina- tion of Vegetable Poisons, 627. (C.) THE PUBLIC HEALTH. Air and Climate : Emanations from Factories, 632 ; Arsenic in Paper, 641, 643 ; in the Air of Rooms, 647 ; Climate and Disease, 650, 651 ; Relation of the Winds to Health, 649. Water : Action on Lead Pipes, 641 ; Organic Impurities in. 646; for Drinking, 646. Sewage: Stanford Process, 634. Antiseptics, Disinfectant-, and Deodorizers : Carbolic Acid, 555 ; Fuch- sin, 537 ; Silicate of Soda as an Antiputrescent, 557, 634 ; Chloride of Lime, 649 ; Antiseptics and Putrefiers, 639. Poisonous Agencies : Poisonous Woolens, 639 ; see also above, Air, Water. Hospitals : Proper Mode of Construction, 615. '! O. MISCELLANEOUS 653 (a.) SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS. America. General: National Academy of Sciences in 1872,657; Bache xviii TABLE OF CONTENTS. Fund of ditto, GG2 ; American Association for the Advancement of Science, G59 ; Froposed National Photoi^rapliic Association, 6G6 ; International Sta- tistical Congress, GGG ; Washiiif/ton: Fourth Circular of the Bureau of Education, G53 ; National Observatory, G57 ; Army Medical Museum, Cata- loijue of, GGy; Cambr'uhje, Mass.: Sixth Report of the Peabody INIuseum, G5G; Anderson School of Natural History, 2GG ; Agassiz Natural-History Society, G55 ; Bostoii : Society of Natural History, G56 ; New Haven : Yale College Museum, 316; New York: Central Park Menagerie, 338 ; its Pro- posed Aquarium, 337 ; New York IVIuscum of Natural History, 657 ; Torrey Botanical Club, G5i; Buffalo Natural-History Society, 653; Albany: New York State Cabinet of Natural History, 657 ; Princeton : Oldest Zoological Museum in North America, 264; P/nladelpItia : Centennial Exhibition, 6GI ; Cincinnati: Acclimatization Society, 265; Minneapolis, Minn.: Minnesota Academy of Natural Sciences, 655 ; San Francisco : California Academy of Sciences, 663 ; Mr. Lick's Donation to, 664 ; Woodward's Gardens, 664. Other Countries. General : International Congress of Orientalists, 669 ; Great Britain : British Anthropological Institute, 274 ; British Archaeolog- ical Association, 272, 671 ; British Association for the Advancement of Sci- ence, 672 ; British Naval College for Officers, 671 ; British Medical Associa- tion, 673 ; Society of Telegraphic Engineers, 670, 971 ; Iron and Steel Asso- ciation, 672 ; London : Menagerie of Zoological Society, 267 ; Medals of the Royal Society, 671 ; Brighton Aquarium, 267, 337 ; American Department at Vienna Exhibition, 662 ; Hamburg: Godeffroy Museum, 268; Paris: Physical Society, 667 ; French Association for the Advancement of Science, 668 ; Lyons : Institute for the Advancement of Experimental Science, 668 ; Geographical Society of the Netherlands, 669; Engineering College in Japan, 669. (b,) INDIVIDUALS. America : Honors to American Scientists, 674; Professor C.A.White, 675. Other Countries : Gay's History of Chili, 268 ; New Members of the Acad- emy of Sciences, Paris, 674 ; Researches of Paul Bert, 675 ; Professors Cams and Wyville Thomson, 672 ; Baron von Milller, 677 ; Tyndall Fund, 676 ; Professor Huxley, 677 ; Mr. Adams, 678 ; Tercentenary of the Birth of Co- pernicus, 678 ; Memorial to Galileo, 678. (C.) GENERAL. Extension of Free Telegraphic Communication, 653 ; Benevolent Endow- ments in the United States Treasury, 666 ; Custom-house Value of the Pound Sterling, 667 ; INIcrchant Marine of the United States in 1872, 667 ; Tyndall Fund, 676 ; Fund for Scientific Research, 670 ; Aid to Scientific Research, 676 ; Scientific Instruction in England, 672 ; American and Foreign Tech- nical Schools, 674 ; Influencing the Advancement of Science, 679 ; Protec- tion of Anticpiities, 673; F^orest and Siream, a New Weekly Journal, 665; La Nature, ditto, 668, P. NIX'ROLOGY' 681 Q. IXI)i:X TO TllK IIKFERENCES G87 Ald'Il Al'.KTICAL INDEX 691 GENERAL SUMMARY OP SCIEXTIFIC AND ESTDUSTEIAL PEOGEESS DUEING THE YEAE 1873. ASTRONOMY. OuE Astronomical review for the year 1873 begins with the consideration of the nebula?. Amono; those that have at- tracted special attention during a number of years, the most interesting is that in the great southern constellation of Argo. According to the observations of Mr. Abbott, of Tas- mania, during the past few years, the dark spaces in this neb- ula are extending, and becoming more defined and filling up with small stars, thus adding a very remarkable instance to the few cases known in other portions of the heavens of rap- id changes in the configuration of a nebula. One of the most valuable additions to the list of stellar atlases is the new one. by Heis, in which the magnitude of every star has been independently determined by himself, and whose distinguishing feature is the delineation of the Milky \Yay, so far as it is possible to see it from northern latitudes. Some very valuable maps have been prepared by Mr. Proc- tor and others, in England, showing the distribution of the stars and nebulae, from the studv of which interestino- con- elusions may be hoped for. Among the fixed stars, the principal work of the year has been, on the one hand, the continuation of the observations of the southern zones by Dr. Gould at Cordoba, South Amer- ica; and on the other hand, the publication by the United States Naval Observatory of Yarnall's catalogue of over ten thousand stars. The accurate observations of double stars, published from time to time during the past ten years by Dembowski, have seemed to him to require a corresponding and thorough in- vestigation of the errors of the filarmici'ometer, and his re- sults must be considered as of great value in reference to this question. XX GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND A complete catalogue of all double stars hitherto observed as such has been promised as a posthumous work of the late ISir John Ilerschel. Meanwhile an equally complete cata- logue has been pre])ared for publication by Mr. Burnham, of Chicago. Either of these works will evidently correspond to a lono-reco^nized need of the astronomers at work in this field. In the line of new discovery, it is probable that the event lirst in the order of interest is the discovery of a companion to Procyon, made in March last by Struve at Poulkova. The interest attaching to this discovery arises from the probabil- ity that the newly found companion is the satellite which gives a minute circular movement to the bright star. This motion has been very clearly indicated by observations made during the last hundred years or more, the researches of Dr. Auwers showing the period of revolution to be about forty years ; but the satellite whose attraction was supposed to cause the motion had never been found. More observations Avill have to be made on the satellite found by Struve before it can be certainly decided whether it is really the disturbing body, and it may be hoped that these will be speedily fur- nished by the great Washington telescope. In the planetary system, we note the determination of the mass of Jupiter by Krilger, who bases his computation upon the perturbation of the asteroid Themis ; the publication by the Smithsonian Institution of Newcomb's tables of Uranus; the publication by Hirn of a masterly disquisition on the theory of the rings of Saturn ; the numerous investigations, especially those of Klinkerfues, on Biela's comet, and its con- nection with the meteoric train and with Pogson's comet; the investigjations of Von Asten in reference to a new method of computing the perturbations of Encke's comet, have a di- rect bearing upon the question of the existence of a resisting medium in space. The phenomena of nutation and precession have been in- vestigated by Dr. Nyren, whose results, deduced from the observations made by the elder Struve with the prime ver- tical transit, do not differ materially from those of C II. F. Peters. The existence of a periodical change in the latitudes of points on the earth's surface seems liighly ])robable. A highly valuable discovery has been made of a manu- scri[)t by Schroter, of a volume of at least two hundred pages INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. xxi octavo, with nearly two hundred drawings relating to spots on the planet Mars. The publication of this important work has been undertaken by the Belgian Academy of Sciences. The general mechanical problems relating to the stability of the solar system have received much attention from Mr. Stock- well in a memoir published by the Smithsonian Institution. The mathematical theory of the motion of the moon is, as announced by Professor Airy, in an extremely unsatisfactory condition, and he expresses grave doubts as to the value of any attempts that have been made to restore ancient his- torical dates by reference to astronomical computations of recorded eclipses of the sun or moon, a doubt which extends even to his own previous investigations, which latter liave been very generally accepted as valuable contributions to ancient chronology. The existence of an atmosphere around the moon has been rendered quite probable by the investigation of Neison, who has shown that one whose density is the four-hundredth part of that of the earth will by its refraction explain certain anomalies in the observations of occultations of stars. In reference to solar physics, the year has witnessed im- portant contributions, among which will perhaps take first rank that full discussion that has been carried on in reference to the various theories of the physical constitution of the sun, that has been prolonged throughout nearly the whole year at the successive sessions of the Paris Academy of Sciences. In this very important discussion, nearly every question re- lating in any way to the j^roblems of solar physics and the spectroscopic method of research has been fully debated. In connection with this, it is announced that Faye, abandoning the theory of uprushing gases, has virtually adopted, in the essential points, that proposed by English observers. Zollner has contributed important ideas on this matter in successive papers on the temperature of the sun, and the in- fluence of temperature on the spectrum lines and bands. The observations of Rosa, which in the hands of Secchi appeared to give as a result a variation in the solar diameter dej^ending on the configuration of the solar spots, have been completely analyzed by Auwers, who, from an investigation of all reliable observations of the solar diameter, demonstrates that we have no reason to believe in such a variability. xxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND The discoveries of small planets between Mars and Jupiter Iiave not been so numerous as in tlie past year, only five hav- ing certainly been added, though a sixth is suspected. The following is the complete list, showing the numbers and dates of discovery of these new additions to our system : No. Name. Discoverer. Date. 129. Antigone Dr. C. H. F. Peters Februaiy 5, 1873. 130. Electra Dr. C. II. F. Peters February 17, " 131. Vala Borelli May 20, " 132. (Not named) Watson July 29, " 133? (Not named) Watson August IG, " 134. Soplirosyne Luther September 27, " It is still doubtful whether Nos. 132 and 133 are not the same planet. If they are not, the former must be considered as lost. It was only observed on the night of its discovery, cloudy weather preventing its being followed. On the 16th of August, Professor Watson, as he supposed, again picked it up, and followed it several weeks. On calculating a circular orbit from this last series, the observation of the 29th of July was not Avell represented ; but it is quite possible that all the observations may be represented by an elliptic orbit, and thus all the observations prove to be made on the same planet. The number of comets seen during the year amounts to the unusual number of seven. Of these there were three periodic ones, w^hich had been observed at previous returns to their perihelion, and for w^hich the time of the present re-appear- ance had been predicted with more or less accuracy, while the other four were, so far as is yet known, entirely new. One of the four, however, appears to be of very short period, re- turning every five years, so that it is curious that it has nev- er before been seen. The following is the complete list of comets seen : Discovccr. ^^f^-^^ comet. I. Stephan,at Marseilles April 3 TempeFs Comet of 1867. II. Tempel, at Milan July 3 New comet of short period. III. Borelli, at Marseilles Aug. 20 New parabolic comet. IV. Henry, at Paris Aug. 23 New comet. V. Stephan, at Marseilles Sept. 1 Brorsen's comet of 184G. VI. Stephan, at Marseilles Sept. 3 Faye's comet of 1844. VII. Coggia, at Marseilles Nov. 10 Probably a new parabolic comet. The one event which has most enojaored the attention of INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. xxiii the official astronomers of all civilized countries, and which must continue to engage it for some time to come, is the tran- sit of Venus over the disk of the sun, which is to occur Decem- ber 8, 1874. This phenomenon is not visible either in Amer- ica or Western Europe, as it begins several hours after the sun has set in Washington on December 8th, and ends several hours before it rises on the 9th. To see it, parties must be dispatched to Asia, and to the islands of the Indian and Pacific oceans; and the organization and equipment of these parties form a labor demanding great care and foresight from all who have it in hand. The governments of Russia, Germany, France, England, and America are all making preparations on the most extensive scale to observe the phenomenon, and it is likely that one or more of the minor nations will join as auxiliaries. The Russians Avill occupy some twenty-five sta- tions scattered throughout the eastern half of Siberia. Three different methods of observation are proposed, all of which will be employed ; but only one method will be applied at any one station. These three methods are : 1^ Co'ntact observations, in which the exact moment at which the dark body of Yenus enters wholly Avithin the bright disk of the sun is carefully noted. 2. Heliometer measures of the apparent angular distance between the limbs of Venus and the sun, taken during the whole time that the planet is projected on the sun. 3. Photographing the sun with Venus on its disk as often as possible during the transit, and afterward measuring these photographs. The Germans will also employ all three methods of obser- vation. They propose to send a party to Pekin, and to oc- cupy Kerguelen's Land in the Indian Ocean, one of the Auck- land Islands, south of New Zealand, and also Mauritius. The rench propose to equip six stations, but the modes of obser- vation seem to be left to the choice of the parties themselves. Little is known of the state of their preparations. The En- glish, under the lead of the Astronomer Royal, are disposed to depend mainly on contact observations. But Mr. De la Rue, the most successful astronomical photographer of England, has been urging the propriety of photographic determina- tions, and several photo-heliographs are being put into oper- ation under his direction for use at the various stations. xxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AM) Among tlie expeditions to be sent out from Great Britain, one is quite remarkable in being carried out entirely at the expense of a private gentleman. Lord Lindsay, a young Scotch nobleman of astronomical tastes, is making the most extensive preparations to send out a party to the Mauritius, completely ecpiipped with every appliance for making obser- vations by all three methods. Our own country is preparing to make the necessary ob- servations on a scale second to no other. It is proposed to equip eight stations, of which three will be in the northern, and five in the southern hemisphere. The northern stations will be Wladiwostock, in Siberia, Yokohama or Nagasaki, in Japan, and I*ekin. In the South Pacific, parties will occiJ])y Kerguelen's Land, IIobart-Town, some point in New Zealand, and one in one of the neiuhborins; islands. The fifth station is not yet selected. In order to facilitate the organization, equipment, and training of the parties, a uniform system of observations will be made at all the stations, which will com- ]>rise observations of contacts at the beginning and end of the transit, and the taking of photographs duriiig its entire continuance. In relation to the observatories and astronomers of the world, we note the complete reorganization of French observ- atories under the general directorship of Le Verrier. The lamented cessation of the piivate observatory of Mr. Warren de la Rue, and the donation of its entire equipment to Oxford Ujniversity, is announced. The new observatory at Oxford will be devoted to physical astronomy. In our own country, Mr. Lick, of San Francisco, offers one million dollars as an endowmient for a very superior astronom- ical institution at the most proper point in the Western Terri- tories. But for the American public, the first event in the order of interest is perhaps the successful erection at tlie National Observatory of the most powerful refracting tel- escope ever made. Not the least interesting circumstance connected with this instrument is the fact that it is almost wholly tlie product of American genius, and of genius devel- oped under most unfavorable circumstances. Most of the great o])tical houses of Europe have existed for genei'atioTis, and the successful establishment of a new one is compara- tively rare. But the founder of the American house of Alvan INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. xxv Clark & Sons still lives ; and though he never enjoyed the advantage of a technical education in his difficult art, he has pursued it with a success entirely without parallel. We have no doubt that the new Washington telescope is the most per- fect ever produced. Whether it will fully equal in power the great reflectors of Rosse and Lassell can only be deter- mined by trial ; it is, however, certain that, while it can not fall far short in this respect, it will be far ahead of them in general convenience of management, and consequent effect- iveness. The completion of the great telescope of the Xaval Observ- atory is now at once to be followed by the construction of an equally large instrument ordered by Mr. M'Cormick, to be presented to the University of Virginia. Dr. Henry Draper, of the New York University, has finished the construction of a silvered-glass reflecting telescope of twenty-eight inches' aperture, which is now mounted equato- rially at his country seat at Hastings, in a new dome adjoin- ing that containing his sixteen-inch reflector, whose con- struction was fully explained in a memoir published by the Smithsonian Institution in 1864, and with which telescope his well-known lunar photographs were taken. The new tele- scope is so arranged as to be easily converted into either a direct vision, a Newtonian, or a Cassegranian, as the astron- omer may desire ; it is intended to be used especially in ce- lestial photography, in all the details of which Di-. Draper is an acknowledged expert. The method of depositing the sil- ver film chosen by Dr. Draper gives one of unusual hardness and reflecting power, such that the light or space penetrating power of this telescope equals, if it does not surpass, that of the great Clark refractor at Washington. The fires during the past two years in Boston and Chicago have seriously crippled the resources of the observatories at those two places, and we learn that the latter has virtually ceased all scientific work. On the other hand, a small observ- atory has been erected in connection with the Columbia College of New York City. The Dudley Observatory at Al- bany has undergone a complete change in its position, in that it has become subject to the board of trustees of the new university organized at Albany by the co-operation of various colleges in or near that city. 2 xxvi ^GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND The new observatory building at Cincinnati has been ded- icated witli appropriate ceremonies. A remarkable instance of American scientific enterprise is found in the recent redetermination of the difterence of longi- tude between the observatories of Gi-eenwich and Paris, car- ried out by Mr. J. E. Ililgard under the auspices of the Coast Survey, incidentally to a redetermination of the transatlantic longitude. As many of our readers may be aware, the first determination of the longitude of any point on the American continent from Greenwich by the Atlantic cable was made by Dr. Gould in 18C6. When the French cable from Brest to St. Pierre, and thence to Duxbury, Massachusetts, was got into operation, it was judged advisable to make a separate deter- mination by that means, as a test of the correctness of the results. But the longitude came out more than half a second greater by the last determination, which, however, depended on the longitude of Paris from Greenwich. To discover where the error lay, it was determined to make a third determina- tion, in wliich signals should be exchanged simultaneously between Greenwich, Paris, and Brest, while being sent across the Atlantic. The result showed that the lono-itude of Paris from Greenwich, as determined by Airy and Le Verrier twenty years ago, was more than one third of a second of time, or about one twelfth of a mile, in error. When this error Avas corrected, and some other points settled, the results of the three determinations became remarkably accordant, and set- tled the longitude of the Naval Observatory from Greenwich within a hundred feet. The Necrology of the past year embraces the names of the following astronomers: Kaiser, Donati, Chacornac, Schweizer, and Chevallier. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS. Earthquakes, as a problem of Terrestrial Physics, and dis- tinct from their geological relations, have been elucidated by the memoir of Seebach on the earthquake of March 6, 1872, by the notes of Graves on the electric earth currents produced by them, and by the notes of Professor Niles on the phenom- ena observed at Monson, Massachusetts. But the crowning work of the year on this subject is that of Mallet. In Terrestrial Magnetism the most important i)lacc must INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. xxvii be given to the great work of Sabine, on the magnetic cliart for the northern hemisphere, constituting his thirteenth con- tribution to this science. The cliart drawn by him represents the magnetic condition of the northern hemisphere for the year 1845, and is based upon all the observations made be- tween 1805 and 1872. As to the exhaustive nature of the la- bors accomplished by him, this work ranks with that of Plansteen (whose recent death is fresh in our memory), while in accuracy, of course, surpassing that, because of the vastly increased number of accurate observations. The subject of ground currents on electric telegraph wires has received considerable attention both in America and En- gland, and has been discussed in the most lucid manner at the meetings of the London Society of Telegraph Engineers; from which it seems evident that the subject requires for further elucidation a greatly increased number of carefully made observations, such as those of Airy, at Greenwich, and of Graves, at Yalentia. METEOROLOGY. In regard to Meteorological matters, the year 1873 will probably long be signalized especially as the year of the meeting of the International Congress at Vienna. This body continued in session during the first half of the month of Sep- tember, and its deliberations were greatly facilitated by the very general consideration that had during the previous year been given to the subjects which it was intended should be brought up for the decision of the Congress. Although in most matters the Congress declined to give at once a decisive vote with regard to the details of the meteorological work recommended by the various nations of Europe there assem- bled, yet the matters brought before it were referred to ap- propriate committees, and the entire influence of the mete- orologists there present were so decidedly given in favor of a nearer approach to uniformity in all meteorological obser- vations and publications, that it is probable that there will therefore be brought about a very marked improvement in this respect during the coming few years. While recogniz- ing the importance of many matters of scientific detail com- ing before the attention of the Congress, we will probably not be far wrong in attributing the greatest importance to the xxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND ini])L'lus given by this Congress to a system of synchronous observations throughout tlie world. The presence of tlie distinguislied chief of tlie Weather Bu- reau of tlie United States Army Signal Office was sufficient to call forth a unanimous vote on the part of the Congress, expressing its sense of the importance of synchronous obser- vations to the study of the phenomena of storms; and to the personal exertions of General Myer is due the establishing at that meetimr of an ao:reement between the heads of the weather bureaus of England, Russia,Turkey, and the United States, by which a uniform system of observations was agreed upon. Into this arrangement, subsequently, Holland, Spain, Portugal, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and China have also entered; so that, beginning with the first of January, 1874, we shall witness a system of synchronous observations made throughout almost the entire northern hemisphere at seven hours and thirty-five minutes A.M., Washington time. As other nations and the private meteorological observers, as well as other official observers of the govei'nments, enter into this system of observations (which, undoubtedly, will event- ually extend to the ocean as well as to the land), we shall soon realize to the fullest extent the great power conferred upon the human race through the application of electricity to the telegraph, since it will become possible ere long to fol- low almost any disturbance that may occur any where on the northern hemisphere from its inception to its maturity and final decay. Hopes have been widely expressed that, through such a system of world-wide observations, it may become possible to predict for Eurojie many of the storms which are supposed to pass from America across the Atlantic. But without attributing too much importance to such a beneficial system of storm warnings (since it is highly probable that most of our American storms die out before reaching the coast of Europe), there still remains enough of possible bene- fit to be derived, both to meteorological study and to the com- mercial interests of mankind, to justify almost any labor that looks to the completion of so magnificent a system of storm studies, and the Army Signal Office is to be congratulated upon the success which lias attended its labors in this direc- tion. It is, perhaps, not too much to say that sfich success as lias been attained could scarcely have been hoped for un- INDUSTKIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. xxix der any combination of favoring circumstances different from that that has in so remarkable a manner centred about tlie Chief Signal Officer. It is to be hoped that the great obstacle to the most perfect development of the system of synchronous observations,viz.,the telegraphic difficulties, may ere long be entirely removed. To the publications of the Army Signal Office during the past year there has been added the "Monthly Weather Re- view," in which is given a condensed statement of the more important meteorological features of the month, accompanied with monthly charts of rain-fall, temperature, storms, etc., supplemented by an annual statistical report, giving, besides the weather items, also a general review of all the influences of the weather upon the various branches of human industry. The national importance of meteorological questions has been acknowledged by the establishment of several new sys- tems of meteoric observation, of which we may mention first in chronological order the establishment, underDr. B.A.Gould, Director of the National Observatory at Cordoba, of a me- teorological system extending throughout the Argentine Con- federacy, and which, though not at present supplemented by a system of telegrapliic storm warnings, may reasonably hope to be so whenever the knowledge of the meteorology of that region justifies it, and the commercial interests of the country demand it. In Sweden, a Royal Meteorological Institute has been es- tablished under the superintendency of Rubenson. In China, under the Bureau of Internal Revenue, a system of telescopic storm warnings has been authorized and placed in the hands of Mr. Campbell. The Meteorological Office of Denmark, established in 1872, has published its first annual report, from which it appears that America is to be specially benefited by its system, in that five permanent stations are established in the Danish colonies in Greenland, and those previously established in the West Indies are maintained Avith excellent efficiency. The system of stations of the Army Signal Office has re- ceived a very great extension, in that a connection has been established between this branch of the government service and the life-saving stations of the Treasury Department. By this means a continuous telegraphic connection is provided XXX GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND for from Cape Ilatteras to Cape Cod, within Avliich region about twenty-live coast stations are included, and the entire line of telegraph is daily patroled by the officers of the gov- ernment. JSii^nal stations have also been establislied in Cuba and Ilavti. A highly important addition has also been made to the in- terior stations of this country in the establishing of three observers on the summit of Pike's Peak, Colorado, the reports from which Avill be of as great interest, both to the public at large and to scientists, as are those from the summit of Mount ^yashington. The system of daily reports of the height of water in rivers and harbors, has received, a wide extension by the addition of about forty stations during the season of navigation along the Mississippi River and its tributaries, and the reports from these constitute one of the most remarkable features of the activity of the service, giving us, as is given nowhere else in the world, a daily graphical view of the motion of the waves of high and low water down the valleys of those rivers. At the suo-crestion of the United States Fish Commissioner, Professor Baird, the signal service has also added to its other labors the daily observation of the temperature of the water at such of its stations as are in the neighborhood of rivers, lakes, or oceans. We are here again brought into contact with one of the most interesting and as yet little-known features of terrestrial jihysics, and valuable results can not but be ex- pected to flow from these observations. The rapid growth of the meteorological system of the Army Signal Office has justified, the important action lately taken by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, by which he has transferred the entire meteorological system, fos- tered by him with so great care during the past thirty years, to the care of the chief signal officer of the army. By this arrangement, a staff of about five hundred volunteer observ- ers is added to the corps of this branch of the government service. Inasmuch as the relations of the government with these gentlemen is to be of a purely private and unofficial character, it is confidently expected that there will thereby result a decided advantage to the study of meteorology in the United States, in that the enthusiasm of amateurs will every where be stimulated to the point of doing good work. INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. xxxi Among the stations thus transferred by the Smithsonian Institution are some in the extreme northern portion of Brit- ish America, and others in Mexico and Central America, and at various points in our own territory not yet reached by telegraph. The meteorologists of this country have long awaited with pleasant expectations the publication of a new edition of the well-known work on the winds of the northern hemisphere by Professor Coffin, and much concern has been expressed at his untimely death, before the completion of the great work that he had in hand. It is, however, gratifying to be able to state that the Smithsonian Institution has been so fortunate as to secure the services of Dr. Woeikof, of St. Petersburg, well kuowm for numerous contributions to meteorological science, and who, making a stay of some months in this country, has consented to superintend the final preparation of Professor Coffin's w^ork for the press : its appearance may be expected during the year 1874. Meteorological literature, under the stimulus of the nation- al systems of practical meteorology which now are support- ed by every civilized nation on the globe, yearly increases in bulk and variety. While it might appear invidious to make a comparison between the labors of so many investigators, it may, on the other hand, not be amiss to specify the following among the most interesting investigations of the past year. The connection between sun spots and terrestrial phenom- ena has received careful attention from Messrs. Lockyer and Meldrum, the former of whom announces, as a principle in science, the idea that scientific progress consists essentially in hunting after cycles in the phenomena of nature, and then tracing these cycles to their ultimate causes, in accordance Avith which he gave a ready, though it seems somewhat prem- ature acquiescence to the suggestion of Meldrum, that the cyclones of the Indian seas exhibited a periodical fluctuation as to their resemblance and severity, coinciding with the fiuctuation in the spots of the sun. The attempt to establish a similar periodicity for the rain-fall of India was made by Meldrum, and the same attempt in Europe was made by Symons, Jelinek, and others. These, however, w^ere but par- tially successful. The careful conclusion of Jelinek being that the chances w^ere equally divided between the existence xxxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND and non-existence of such connection. On tlie other liand, it being apparent that the inHuence of solar spots, if it exist- ed at all, should be most apparent in the temperature of the atmosphere, Koppen has undertaken to investigate this point in a more tllorou^h manner than had hitherto been done. Al- though numerous and able men had for the past twenty-five years studied the subject, and generally arrived at positive conclusions as to the actual existence of such connection, yet it seemed to Koppen that the study should be based upon a broader field of observations, and he accordingly, instead of confining himself to the observations of any one country, has endeavored to sfct rid of all local climatic influences, by em- bracing in his computations every accessible observation of the temperature made during the past one hundred and fifty years in the northern hemisphere. This immense mass of material has been handled by him with the most con- summate skill ; and his conclusions, which will be found in detail in the subsequent part of this work, must be consider- ed as proving in the most irrefragable manner the actual ex- istence of a slight period in the temperature of the earth, fol- lowing the changes in the solar spots at an interval of from one to three years. Miihry has contributed an important chapter to our knowl- edge of clouds and cloud formations, by calling attention to an almost forgotten observation made by Meissner in the course of his researches on ozone, from which it would seem that in an atmosphere having no oxygen there can be form- ed no true clouds, since only in the jM'esence of oxygen are the true vapor vesicles observed. And, again, he has con- tributed a most important theory as to the origin of atmos- pheric electricity, in that he finds it to be in some sort a con- version of the heat radiated from the sun into electricity, which exists in greatest intensity at the surface of the earth, and acts inductively upon the atmosphere above. The sug- gestion lies not far off* that in this electricity we find the prin- cipal disturbing agent acting upon the magnetic needle. Among the most memorable storms of the past year, the so-called Nova Scotia cyclone takes precedence. According to the short preliminary memoir of Abbe, this storm was first lieard of at a ])oint east or northeast of the West India isl- ands on the 13th of August, passing thence Avest and north- INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. xxxiii westward between the Bermudas and the coasts of the United States; it turned, as cyclones usually do, northeastward, and although its centre, advancing nearly parallel to the coast of Nova Scotia, was at a distance of several hundred miles there- from, yet were the winds experienced in that province so se- vere as to utterly destroy all the shipping in its harbors, and cause an immense destruction of life and property on land. When last heard from, this cyclone was some distance east of Newfoundland, and it appears possible that it preserved its integrity until reaching the coast of Norway, some two weeks after its first appearance. Professor Abbe suggests that probably an important class of cyclones originate on the coast of Senegambia. Baron Maydell has studied the connection between the direction of the movement of storm centres and the direction of the line joining the position of the storm centre at any moment, and the region of anomalous high temperature. One of the most thorough and therefore valuable investi- irations that has ever been made into the connection between meteorological phenomena and agricultural statistics has been lately published by General Rawson, Governor of Bar- badoes, wdio has in a most exhaustive manner shown the influence of the rain-fall on the sugar cro]) of that island, and has even prepared tables by which one can predict, Avith a certain degree of accuracy, the crop that may be ex- pected to follow the season in w^hich a given amount of rain falls. The investigation of the atmosphere by means of the bal- loon has been steadily prosecuted in Europe, especially in France by Janssen ; while in America a great deal of interest Avas excited upon the subject by the announcement that the Graphic newspaper company of New York would furnish the well-known aeronaut. Professor Wise, with unlimited funds, in order to enable him to make a voyage from Amer- ica to Europe. Notwithstanding the utter failure of this at- tempt which is to be lamented in a scientific point of view, since, had the balloon made a voyage of above twenty-four hours' duration, the observations connected therewith could not have failed io have been of ojreat advantasfe there has still been derived much benefit from the discussions which took place in relation to the subject of a westerly current of 2* xxxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND air, on the part of several scientific gentlemen, "before the day of ascension arrived. Amono: the contributions to our knowl- edge upon this subject may be especially cited a short paper by Professor Newton, of Yale College, -whose observations relative to the movements of the clouds of meteoric smoke, under the influence of the currents of air prevailing in the higher regions of the atmosphere, showed conclusively that no constant westerly current exists there. The frequent as- censions of Mr. King, of Boston, have generally been utilized by him during the past year, as in previous years, to a less extent in furthering: our meteorological knowledo-e. He has to this end again relied upon the services of Mr. Holden, of Boston, an experienced aeronaut, and fully imbued with Mr. King's enthusiasm as to the prospective usefulness of the bal- loon in its le2:itimate field of work. Among the publications of the British meteorological com- mittee, tliat of the meteorology of the North Atlantic equa- torial region especially claims our attention, as being an ear- nest of the work that is promised for the whole North Atlan- tic Ocean. Meteorologists have during the year been called on to de- plore the death of J. PI. Coftin and Charles Smalhvood. The connections between climate and disease have been in- vestigated by numerous persons, among whom we may men- tion Molner on the influence of barometric depressions, as observed in the hospitals of Austria ; and Prestel on the in- fluence of the winds, as observed in Friesland. The annual report of the Philadelphia Board of Health contains also very instructive diagrams,' showing the connection between mor- tality and temperature. The labors of Mtihry, in regard to atmospheric electricity, have already been referred to, and it reihains only to be stated that the intimate connection assigned by him as exist- ing between electrical and magnetical phenomena, on the one liand, and solar spots on the other, receives further confirma- tion from the observations of Dr. Wislicenus, of St. Louis, whose observations on atmospheric electricity, continued now for thirteen years, show a variation that seems to point direct- ly to the solar-spot period, agreeing therein exactly with tlie researches of Loomis on auroras. On the other liand, Broun maintains the existence of a variation in magnetic phenomena, INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. xxxv having for its period twenty-six days, and therefore pointing toward the solar diurnal revolution rather than to the solar spots as its origin. In the study of auroras, we notice that the review, by Donati, of Florence, of the phenomena attending the aurora of Feb- ruary 4, 1872, has called forth encomiums from observers in all parts of the globe. On the other hand, the extensive ta- bles of Professor Lovering, of Cambridge,Massachusetts, have enabled Professor Loomis to review and extend his investi- gations into the periodicity of the auroral phenomena, and to establish with great probability some of the details of the connection between solar spots and auroral phenomena. ELECTRICITY. In Electrical Science, one of the most important steps taken has been the founding, in 1872, of the new society of tele- graph engineers in London, from wdiose proceedings numerous extracts will be found in our pages. An excellent memoir on electrical dissipation, by Bobou- lieff, has appeared in the Journal of the St. Petersburg soci- eties of physics and chemistry ; and in the same city has been successfully tried the new method of electric illumination, by Ladiguin, which, in connection with the newly invented magneto-electric machine of Gramme, promises to fully real- ize the long-deferred expectations of the advocates of this method of illumination. The curious effect of light in increas- ing the electrical resistance of a bar of selenium has been quantitatively investigated by Lieutenant Sale, R. E., and has been proposed as the basis of a new photometer. The allied action of heat has been extensively studied by Benoist for high temperatures. The intimate theoretical connection between these phenomena promises at no distant day to lead to more satisfactory views of the true nature of the electric force. The theory of Edlund as to the nature of electricity has been mathematically developed by himself and others, show- ing a remarkable agreement with observations. On the other hand, the profound work of Maxwell has, with equal success, developed what may be called the vibratory theory. The genernl dissemination of the results of the studies of the past thirty years has been greatly facilitated by the publication of the admirable works of Thomson, Jenkin, and Maxwell. xxxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND The brilliant experiments of Le Roiix on peripolar induc- tion, as well as the new magneto-electric machine of Gramme, have prepared the way for an exact determination of the co- efficient of equivalency of ibrce and electricity. Tlie effect of galvanic currents on the dimensions and elasticity of me- taliic conductors has been studied by Streiutz and Mayer respectively. The observations by Villari on the time re- quired to magnetize and demagnetize glass gives us a new relation between the electric and molecular forces. During the year there have passed away Sir Francis Ro- nalds and August de la Rive, names equally honored in their respective countries. The older theories of the nature of molecules and molecu- lar actions seem at present to be giving way before the sur- prising success of the advocates of the dynamical theory of the constitution of gases, the principles of which theory have been established by Stephan, Clausius, Meyer, Maxwell, and others, upon an exceedingly firm basis. The recent address of Maxwell on molecules gives the most recent results of the studies of these investigators. PHYSICS. In the allied departments of OjMcs and Acoustics the ac- tivity has been very considerable, and we can here only mention those items that have a comparatively imjoortant and permanent bearing upon the progress of science : such are Weinhold's investiixations into the measurements of hio-h temperatures; J. W. Draper's Essays upon the actinic, optic, and thermic powers of different portions of the spectrum ; and Henry Draper's photographs and measurements of the diffraction spectrum. One of the most remarkable discoveries, interesting alike to the practical photographer and the physicist, is announced in a short dispatch from Dr. Yogel, of Berlin. This consists in the invention of chemical compounds, that may at will be made sensitive to the rays of greatest or least refrangibility. Lord Raylcigh has submitted a short but important and suggestive memoir on the reflection of sound waves from a fiurliice composed of numerous regularly arranged smaller sur- faces. Professor Mayer, of the Stevens Institute of Technology, IXDUSTKIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. xxxvil has made known a method of analysis of sounds, and has ap- plied it to the investigation of the complicated sounds that occur in nature. Especial interest attaches to his investiga- tions on the antennae of insects, considered as the organ of hearino\ The interesting phenomena of the vibration of cords at- tached to and vibrating with a diapason have been investi- gated with much success by Mercadier and Gripon. Professor Henry has continued his observations on abnor- mal phenomena of sound in connection with fog signals. Barrett has investigated certain remarkable molecular changes occurring in iron Avire at a low red heat, by wdiich it appears that instead of expanding continuously for every ad- ditional degree of heat imparted to it, there is a certain tem- perature corresponding to the red-hot state at which a sud- den contraction takes place when the wire is being heated ; but a sudden elonoation is observed when the wire is being: cooled. Barrett associates these phenomena with others ob- served by Tait in thermo-electric experiments, and concludes that both lines of inquiry show that a profound molecular disturbance takes place in iron at a low red heat. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY. During the j^ast year much has been done in all depart- ments of Chemistry. In chemical physics, especially, good work has been accomplished. The field of thermo-chemistry has been considerably enlarged, the chief workers in it being Thomson and Berthelot. Thomson has investis^ated the af- linity of hydrogen for the non-metallic elements, the formation and decomposition of formic acid, and the formation of tlie sulphur acids. The first and last named investigations have led to the most interesting results, perhaps, it being shown on the one hand that the affinity of hydrogen for the first mem- ber of each of the four natural groups of non-metallic ele- ments is positive, but diminishes with the higher members as their atomic weights increase; and, on the other hand, that the total heat of formation of the sulphur acids decreases Avith every additional atom of sulphur. Berthelot's Avork lias been mainly on the state of various salts and of the hy- dracids in solution in Avater. As regards salts, confirmation is given of the vicAv that Avhen two salts react upon each oth- XXXV iii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND er in solution, the stronger acid seeks the stronger base, and vice versa. Some desirable determinations of specific heat liave been made. Mixter and Dana liave determined this constant ibr silicon, zirconium, and boron, and shown that these elements, like carbon, are exceptions to Dulong and Petit's law of equality for atomic heats. Dewar, determining the specific heat of carbon at high temperatures (2100 C, etc.), does much, liowever, to confirm Weber's view that at such temperatures the element should agree with the law of Dulong and Petit. It is to be hoped that Dewar w^ill extend his experiments to the other exceptions to this law. Other very important work in chemical physics has been done by Dr. Draper, whose papers on actino-chemistry have attracted much attention. Draper shows that, contrary to a widely prevalent conception, all the rays of the solar spectrum have actinic power, and can produce chemical change. This rule applies to the invisible as well as to the visible portions of the spectrum. In any selected case, the particular rays producing the change depend upon the nature of the sub- stance upon which they act. Champion and Pellet's experi- ments on the vibratory motions of detonating bodies are also worthy of notice. These gentlemen have investigated the effects produced by tlie explosion of a variety of such sub- stances upon a series of sensitive flames, and have shown that essentially different sets of vibrations occur in the different cases. In general inorganic chemistry many investigations have been made. A number of the rarer metals have been re-ex- amined, and several new determinations of atomic weights deduced. That of yttrium has been fixed by Cleve and Iloeg- lund at 59.7, and that of erbium, by the same experiment- ers, at 113.7. Tlicse metals seem in many respects to belong in the same group with zinc, magnesium, and cadmium. In- dium has at last been definitely placed by Roessler. It forms a true alum, like aluminum and iron. Liechti and Kempe have described the chloride of molybdenum, and Atterberg has investigated some glucinum compounds. At the present rate, even though most chemists prefer to work in the field of organic chemistry, we shall not have very long to wait for an intelligible classification of the metals. During the year, ammonia has been made the subject of INDUSTKIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. xxxix considerable study. Donkin, by the action of induced elec- tricity upon nitrogen and hydrogen, mixed in the proper pro- portions, has succeeded in performing the synthesis of the gas, obtaining it, however, only in very small quantities. Gore has investigated the solvent properties of anhydrous lique- fied ammonia upon about two hundred and fifty substances. Among many other bodies, potassium, sodium, iodine, sul- phur, and phosphorus were found to be soluble. It will be remembered that several years ago much interest was awak- ened by Graham's discoveries concerning the occlusion of hydrogen by palladium. Graham thought that a definite al- loy was produced ; but Roberts and Wright have recently shown that the supposition was incorrect. These chemists have determined the specific heat of palladium charged with hydrogen, and have shown that the latter element can not be regarded as existent in the palladium in the solid form. In this connection, Troost and Hautefeuille's experiments upon the solution of gases in iron, cast iron, and steel must be noted. These metals, at high temperatures, have long been known to absorb various gases, emitting them again upon cooling. But the authors above named have shown that the disengage- ments of gases often noticed in making large castings are not due to this cause alone, and that the phenomena are some- times attended by a change in the composition of the metal. For example, they found that when iron rich in carbon Avas kept fused in a highly silicious crucible, the silica of the cru- cible was partially reduced, the iron becoming richer in sili- con, while carbonic oxide w'as evolved. Troost and Haute- feuille also made an analysis of the gases contained in a sam- ple of pig-iron weighing five hundred grammes. This sample, heated to 800 C, in vacuo, for 190 hours, gave off 16.7 cubic centimeters of gas, consisting of carbonic acid, 0.6; carbonic oxide, 2.8 ; hydrogen, 12.3 ; and nitrogen, 1. In addition to the work already described, a vast amount of detail work has been accomplished by chemists all over the world. A variety of papers upon ozone have been pub- lished, and an immense number of inorganic compounds de- scribed. In our own country,Wolcott Gibbs has put forward some important work upon the ammonio -cobalt bases, and Messrs. Carrington Bolton and Morton, of New York, have carried out some quite elaborate investigations upon the flu- orescent spectra of many uranium compounds. xl GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND But it is to Organic Chemistry^ as usual, tliat tlie most at- tention has been paid. Tlie greater simplicity of the work, and tlie readier applicability of modern atomistic views, seem to have a great iascination for European chemists. In the direction of synthesis, a number of interesting things liave been achieved. Jungfleisch lias managed to obtain by syn- thesis both modifications of tartaric acid, beginning with the elements for a starting-point. Brodie, by the action of elec- tricity upon a mixture of carbonic oxide and hydrogen, has succeeded in obtaining marsh -gas, while carbonic acid and hydrogen, under similar circumstances, gave him formic acid. When the electricity was allowed to act ujDon pure, dry car- bonic oxide, contraction ensued, and small quantities of some new, solid oxides of carbon were produced. These oxides ap- pear to form regular liomologous series, just as the liydro- carbons do. In addition to these discoveries, Aronheim lias achieved the synthesis of naphthaline and phenyl-butylene ; Graebe, the synthesis of phenanthrene ; and Basarow, that of parabaiiic acid. Some of the most interesting work of the year has been done by Gladstone and Tribe, by means of their " copper zinc couple." These chemists, having found that zinc upon which a little copper had been deposited was able to decompose water at ordinary temperatures, carried the observation over into the field of organic chemistry by investigating the ac- tion of the "cou]:)le" upon various organic liquids, such as, for instance, the iodides of methyl, ethyl, propyl, and amyl. A variety of interesting reactions occurred, the hydrides of the radicals being formed, and usually some quantity of the more complex organo-metallic zinc radicals appearing also. Zinc-propyl was one of the more striking of the compounds thus obtained. In the hands of Thorpe, the same " copper zinc couple" has been made of service in analytical chemistrv, in the estimation quantitatively of nitric, chloric, and iodic acids. The "couple" Avas found to transform the nitric acid of nitrates into ammonia, which is easy to determine; while it acted as a reducing agent upon chloric and iodic acids, en- abling the chemist subsequently to estimate chlorine and iodine in the ordinary way. In the series of the alcohol radicals much work has been recently done, although most of it is in detail uninteresting to INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. xli ordinary readers. Grimshaw's study of etbyl-amyl, Liebeii and Rossi's work upon butyl compounds, and Cahours' re- searches among the compounds of propyl deserve special no- tice. Cahours in particular has obtained striking results, having examined, besides many other bodies, comj^ounds of propyl with sulphur, boron, silicon, mercury, zinc, tin, alu- minum, and glucinum. Griinzweig's investigation of butyric acid, and the labors of Pierre and Puchot upon the same sub- stance, and upon propionic acid also, must not be overlook- ed. Pierre and Puchot in their work have obtained results of great interest in connection with the law of boiling-points ; showing that the constant differences commonly supposed to exist between the boiling-points of homologous substances are not always to be depended upon. Several new organic compounds containing silicon have been obtained, Troost and Hautefeuille (who seem always to work together), and Ladenburg, being the chief explorers in this direction. The ground thus far covered in the study of these compounds has been well described by Dr. Emerson Reynolds, who de- livered before the Royal Institution a lecture upon "Alcohols from Flint and Quartz." The lecturer, after pointing out the striking similarities between silicon and carbon by them- selves, showed that the same resemblances extended even to their compounds, describing the most important among those tlius far discovered. He also announced that he had succeed- ed in obtaining the silicon analogue of cyanogen, a compound which awaits further investigjation. In other departments of organic chemistry, Mayer and Wright have well studied some of the derivatives of mor- phine. Doubtless, in a very few years, we shall be able to produce artificially not only tliis valuable alkaloid, but also others, such as quinine, caffeine, etc. Hlasiwetz and Haber- mann have continued their researches upon the proteine com- pounds, obtaining results of some interest concerning caseine. But the most bulky Avork of the year in organic chemistry has been among the so-called aromatic compounds'. Unfoi'- tunately, however, many of the German workers in this field seem to have a mania for obtaining new compounds, and then leaving them very imperfectly described. In consequence, much of their work will have to be done over acrain. In this group of compounds, isomeric bodies have already been mul- xlii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND tiplicd to an alarming extent. One excellent investigation in this licld has been that of Wright, on cymene from different sources. Another paper of great value is that of Dale and Schorlemmer upon aurinc, one of the important coloring mat- ters derivable from coal-tar. Quite naturally, the synthesis of alizarine, a year or two ago by Graebe and Liebermann, lias stimulated work among the other compounds of the quinine group; and Dr. Russell, chairman of the chemical section in the British Association, made this group the subject of his address. W. II. Perkin, long famous for his discoveries among the coal- tar colors, has been also workino- in the same line of investioja- tion, and has described a new coloring matter obtained in the manufacture of alizarine. This new substance he terms an- thro-purpurine ; and the frontispiece to his paper (in the Jour- nal of the Chemical Society for May) consists of a leaf to which are glued little scraps of cloth dyed respectively with alizarine and wuth the body in question. Those dyed with an- thro-purj^urine are, if any thing, a little the brighter. Several quite important papers upon Physiological Chem- istry have appeared during the year. Among them may be mentioned that of Alexander Schmidt on the coao-ulation of fibrine, that of Carl Voit on the use of gelatine in nutrition, Aubert's on the quantity of carbonic acid excreted by the liuman skin, and Bunge's on the importance of common salt and the behavior of potassium compounds in the human body. Pettenkofer and Voit also publish some results of experiments upon feeding with flesh and fat, showing that fattening is best produced by beginning with a liberal diet rich in nitrog- enous matter, and moderately so in fats ; and, as tlie animal frame enlarges, increasing the proportion of fatty food and diminishing the quantity of albuminoids. In Technical Chemistry there are many signs of progress. A large number of chemical patents are annually issued, both in this country and in Europe, and large manulacturing cor- porations are rapidly learning the advantages to be reaped from the employment of able chemists. It is even reported that one of our leading American railway companies has em- ployed a chemist, at a liberal salary, to devote himself entirely to the work of their road. A peculiar substance, called suint, lias been extensively studied of late. This substance, which forms about one third of the weight of raw wool, is rich in INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. xliii potash salts, which, taken up by the sheep from the soil, are excreted with their sweat, and remain attached to the fleece. This suint, which Avas formerly wasted, has for some time been utilized as a source of potash compounds, and is now found to be a most available material for the manufacture of potassium ferrocyanide. In the production of the caustic al- kalies a little improvement is suggested by Pollacci. Some years ago Wohler ^^roposed to obtain these substances by igniting the nitrates with metallic copper, and treating the product with water ; but, unfortunately, the alkalies thus pre- pared were always contaminated with some oxide of copper. Pollacci substitutes iron filings for copper in this process, and claims to obtain the caustic soda and potash quite pure. The refuse of wool, horn, feathers, leather, skins, sponge, etc., ma- terial rich in nitrogen, but hitherto of little or no use except for fertilizing, has at last been utilized by L'Hote. He mixes the material first with a solution of caustic soda in ten parts of water, and allows the mass to digest until it has acquired a pasty consistence. He then adds quicklime and distills, be- ginning at a low temperature, and increasing to a red heat. The vapors, rich in ammonia, are passed into common sul- phuric acid, and ammonium sulphate, a substance of great commercial value, is thus obtained. The residuum in the re- tort consists mainly of sodium carbonate and lime, which, by treatment with water, may be made to give back the caustic soda used at the beginning of the operation. Some interesting facts concerning Metallurcjif have been made public. Percy, for instance, has shown that manganese may be used instead of nickel in the manufacture of German silver, the product being quite undistinguishable from the al- loy in general use. Bajault and Roche have described a new process for the manufacture of steel. A mixture of pulverized iron ore and molten pig-iron is cast in metallic moulds, which form a part of the final ingots. These ingots are then heated to redness in a peculiar furnace for a considerable time, car- bonic oxide is given ofi", and crude steel is formed. This crude steel can then be cast in the ordinary way. By this process any degree of carbonation can be produced in the steel, the proportions of cast iron and ore being readily fixed before- hand. One more striking contribution to chemical technology xliv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND remains to be noticed Dr. Sprengel's paper upon "a new class of explosives, which are non -explosive during manu- iiicture, storage, and transport." Dr. Sprengel finds it pos- sible to devise many explosive mixtures of substances, whicii, apart from each other, are non -explosive, and which need not be mixed until the combination is to be used. For in- stance, mixtures of many organic compounds, notably some hydrocarbons, with nitric acid, both ingredients being non- explosive, will explode with great violence when ignited by a detonating cap. The mixture of nitro-benzol with the acid seems to be about thirty-eight per cent, more violent as an explosive agent than nitro-glycerine ; both of the original substances being quite harmless. Picric acid mixed with nitric acid is also a terribly violent detonator. In this mixt- ure the heat given out is something immense. In one in- stance a metallic cartridge was charged with it, and fired from a rifle. On extracting the cartridge-case the upper half of it was found to have been melted ; while grains of sand, which had been added to the explosive mixture, and some of which remained in the cartridge, were " fused to- gether as if struck by lightning." Obviously this principle of mixing non-explosive agents to form explosives is capable of great extension. At present there are some trifling prac- tical disadvantages in the way of using such mixtures. Soon, doubtless, these disadvantages will be overcome, and the art of blasting: will be revolutionized. GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. In American (rco^o^?/, important results have been obtained in the West. In the survey of the Territories under Dr. Hay- den in 1872, the geology of the Snake River division was confided to Professor Bradley, who has within the last few months given us a summary of the work done. It had for many years been known that strata characterized by organic remains of the Potsdam period were not wanting in the Rocky Mountains, and the observations of Professor Bradley now make known the existence in the Wahsatch Mountains of a large development of the Lower and Middle Cambrian rocks of Sedofwick, the Primal and Auroral of Roo-ers. Tlie ancient gneisses of the Wahsatch, with high westerly dips, are overlaid by a great mass of paleozoic strata, dipping east- INDUSTEIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. xlv ward, and consisting at the base of from 1000 to 1500 feet of quartzites and conglomerates, regarded as of Potsdam age, follovred bv 3000 feet of magrnesian limestones and calcare- ous shales, which afibrd numerous organic forms about the age of the Calciferous and Chazy divisions of the New York system. These correspond to the Levis division of the so- called Quebec group, or the Auroral of Rogers, Mr. Meek hav- ing recognized therein many of the forms so well described by Billings from the vicinity of Quebec. Toward the sum- mit of this fossiliferous series forms referred to the Niagara have been recognized, and in some of them, according to Ten- ney, corals of Lower Helderberg age. Above these are 2000 feet of sandstones, probably Devonian, followed by 3000 feet of limestones abounding in the remains of the Carboniferous period. We find no notice in this region of the existence of the second fauna, corresponding to the Trenton, Utica, and Hudson River rocks of New York, the Matinal of Rogers, the Upper Cambrian of Sedgwick, or Siluro-Cambrian. In the apparent absence of these Siluro-Cambrian rocks, which are widely spread throughout the great North American })aleozoic basin, we see a resemblance to northeastern Amer- ica where, also, the rocks of the first and third paleozoic faunas occur to the exclusion of the second fauna. This great thick- ness of paleozoic strata is not every where seen in this re- gion, since, according to Mr. Bradley, in the Teton Mountains the Avhole of the Cambrian rocks arc represented by 700 feet of quartzites and shaly limestones, overlaid by 600 feet of vesicular magnesian limestones with crinoids, probably of Niao-ara aire, which are followed in their turn by the same Carboniferous limestones as before, with a thickness of 2000 feet or more. Although the Levis limestones are generally conformable with the Potsdam sandstone in this region, they are in one place seen to rest unconformably upon the upturned sandstone. In western Wyoming, Professor T. B. Comstock, the geologist to the late expedition under General Ord, shows in the Wind River Mountains a remarkable se- ries, all apparently conformable, and resting at an angle of about 20 upon the older crystalline rocks. At the base are Lower Cambrian rocks, followed by strata with Oriskany fos- sils, and by Carboniferous limestones. Above these are bright red Triassic sandstones, lighter red Jurassic rocks, and Cre- xlvi GENEKAL SmiMAllY OF SCIENTIFIC AND laceous strata, the latter Avitli lignites and coal. Overlying these, in a nearly horizontal attitude, are fresh-water sand- stones, conglomerates, and marls, probably of Upper Eocene age. Of the volcanic rocks of the region, a hornblendic tra- chyte is said to overlie the Cretaceous, while there are out- bursts of much earlier date, and others of Post-pliocene age. The volcanic activity of the great plains of the Snake Riv- er basin was also, according to Bradley, comparatively re- cent, and the movements of the surface were still later, as is shown by the fact that basalts and porphyries, interstratified with Pliocene sandstones and limestones, are found upheaved at the base of the foot-hills. The boiling springs in the basin of the Upper Madison River rise from sandstones which ap- pear to have been deposited in a volcanic crater of large di- mensions, and the subterranean fire still heats the Avater Avhich sinks into these porous beds, causing it to I'ise again heated to a point above the boiling-point at this altitude (about 200 Fahr.). The sandstones are perforated and eroded by the solvent power of these heated waters, which dissolve the silica to deposit it again in the vicinity as the water cools. Gelatinous vegetable forms grow in all these pools where the water is not in such violent ebullition as to break them up and destroy them. Tliey are sometimes broad, thick sheets or branching sponge-like forms, green or rusty-brown in color, and sometimes white and fibrous. The latter, which grow most abundantly in the rapidly flowing outlets of the pools, are constantly incrusted with silica, and as constantly reproduced. The larva? oi Ilellcopsyche were also met with in a pool at 180 Fahr., and living diatoms in water at over 100 Fahr. The deposited silica has in some parts cemented sand and gravel beds into hard conglomerates, and even into perfect quartzites, and the silicification of Avood in all its stages is seen in the pools. In this connection we may notice the investigations by John Arthur Phillips of the well-known silicified woods from the auriferous gravels of California, probably, according to Newberry, of later Pliocene age. Some of the trunks were silicified without previous change, while otiiers were first converted more or less completely into lig- nite before silicification. In the latter case an amount of carbonaceous matter, equal to about fourteen per cent., is still preserved. The replacing silica, nearly pure and slight- INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. xlvii ]y hydrated, in all cases retains somewhat over one half per cent, of alkalies, the potash predominating over the soda. It is to be noticed that in this Rocky Mountain region the crystalline strata are more ancient than the Potsdam. The same thing has been shown with regard to the quartzites and talco-quartzose schists of Sauk and of Dodge counties, Wisconsin. The former of these liad been referred by Hall to the Huronian, but by most other geologists both have been resrarded as altered Potsdam or St. Peter's sandstone. Pro- fessor Roland Irving has pointed out that these rocks are in both localities unconformably overlaid by the Potsdam sand- stone, and thus confirms the view of Professor Hall. In the east, Mr. Ford has studied farther the Lower Cam- brian rocks of Troy, New York, which, either by a dislocation, or by an overturned and denuded fold, are made to directly overlie, in apparent conforjnity, the Cambro-Silurian strata (Utica and Hudson River slates) ; the whole of the strata dip- ping to the eastward. These older, though overlying rocks, contain forms belonoino- to the fauna which Mr. Billins^s has named Lower Potsdam, including trilobites of the genera 3Ii- cj'odiscus, Conocej^halites, Olenellus^ and Agnostiis. This fauna is distinct from that of the true Potsdam of New York and Wisconsin, as well as from the Menevian of IMassachusetts, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland. Its relation to these is yet to be determined, though it is closely allied to both. This fauna is also found in Georgia, Vermont, and in the Strait of Belle Isle, besides which a large extent of rocks on the south side of the St. Lawrence below Quebec, formerly mapped as the Quebec group, is now referred to the Lower Potsdam. Professor Hall has again called attention to the distinct- ness and importance of the Low^er Ilelderberg group of lime- stones, which some have attempted to confound with the Ni- agara, apparently because in the valley of the Ohio the two series, reduced in volume, are in immediate contact. Hall reiterates, what he had long since shown, that they are wide- ly different in their fauna, and in central New York are sep- arated by the great non-fossiliferous Onondaga or Salina for- mation ; while to the eastward, Avhere this and even the un- derlying Niagara is wanting, the Lower Helderberg appears as a great fossiliferous limestone formation, which to the xlviii GENERAL SUMAIARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND nortli and east rests directly upon the rocks of the second I'aiina, and even upon the older crystalline rocks (see the Jiec- ord for 1872, p. xxxv-xxxvii). Hunt, in this connection, calls attention to the absence over New England and the British maritime provinces of the second or Trenton fauna, and, ex- cept to the far eastward, of the third or Medina-Niagara fauna. The Lower Helderberg, corresponding to the Ludlow rocks of ]]ritish geologists, really includes a fourth paleozoic launa, and is, the upper division of the true Silurian, while the Medina-Niagara group is the lower division ; the interval between the two presenting a great paleontological and chron- ological break, which is marked in central New York and western Ontario by the deposition of the dolomites, salt, and gypsum of the Salina formation. Professor Newberry, in discussing the often-observed cy- cles of deposition in stratified rocks, has pointed out that the invasion of the sea, resulting from a subsiding continent, produces first a sheet of sea-beach sand and gravel, followed by oif-shore deposits. To these succeed the limestones de- posited in the open sea, which are followed by the mixed sed- iments of shaly or earthy limestones, the product of the re- treating sea, completing the cycle of deposition ; after which ages may elapse before a second submergence permits the deposition of a new series, characterized by a new fauna and a new flora. In this connection Hunt has insisted upon the importance of the deposits from evaporating inland seas, marked by magnesian limestones, often %vith gypsum and salt, and in some cases destitute of animal life, which, as in the case between the Niagara and the Lower Helderberg, gave rise to a paleontological break. The phenomena of the disintegration of crystalline rocks, as seen in the Blue Ridge, have been discussed by Dr. Hunt. The process was one of chemical change, resulting in the de- composition of the feldspars and hornblende, removing the al- kalies, lime, and magnesia, and a portion of silica, and con- verting the rocks, to a depth in some cases of a hundred feet or more, into a soft, reddish clay ; in which the unchanged veins and layers of quartz still remain to show the liighly inclined position of the strata. This action took place under the in- fluence of a highly carbonated and moist atmosphere, and "was already at work in early paleozoic times. From the INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. xlix clays thus produced were derived the argillaceous rocks of the various geological periods up to the present, while the separated quartz and the dissolved and precipitated silica liave formed the various silicious rocks, sandstones, quartzites, and cherts. To the alkaline and earthy carbonates produced in this process of decay are due the limestones and dolomites of the paleozoic sea ; while the iron dissolved out by organic agency from the decayed materials has furnished not only the deposits of iron in various forms which appear at different horizons in the paleozoic series, but also the great accumula- tions of limonite ores found along: the base of the Blue Rido^e. Some of these have been directly derived from the decom- posed rocks, while others are due to secondary changes in the paleozoic iron-bearing strata. This decay of the crystalline rocks was, in his opinion, uni- versal, but the softened materials to the north and east have been removed by aqueous and, in some cases, by glacial ero- sion from the surface, leaving bare the hard, unchanged por- tions. As late as the Miocene, he conceives that the hills of New England were covered with decayed materials like the Blue Ridge of to-day, and from these came deposits of clays and ores like those of Brandon, Vermont, which are vestiges of formations that w'ere swept away during the great sub- mergence at the close of the Pliocene; since which time no considerable decomposition has gone on, as is clear from the preservation of the glacial scratches. He, however, supposes this process of decay to have been continuous up to a com- paratively recent period. As we go southward, where ero- sion was less active, we find the partially disintegrated por- tions of the rocks undisturbed, and finally the completely decomposed strata still in place, showing that this region has not for long ages been exposed to erosion or denudation. The permeability of this superficial coating, due to its peculiar structure and its vegetable covering, has prevented its degra- dation by atmospheric waters. This decay and disintegration was, according to Dr. Hunt, a necessary preliminary to gla- cial and erosive action, which removed already softened ma- terials. Mr. Burbank has, in this connection, furnished an important contribution to our notions of the superficial drift- deposits, by showing that in some parts of North Caroli- na, where the hardened crystalline granitic rocks are incom- 3 I GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND pletely decayed, tlie chauge, extending from natural joints, produces a concentric exfoliation, leaving rounded nuclear masses of unclianged rock, like the boulders of decomposition described bv llartt in Brazil. lie concludes that the bould- ers of our northern glacial drift are due to such a process, and that the glacial action which displaced the already soft- ened and disintegrated rocks did not produce the great mass of glacial drift by mechanical abrasion of hard rocks. As regards glacial action, the extreme views of those who assert the existence of immense continental glaciers, or of an ice- cap covering the greater part of the northern and southern hemispheres, while strongly defended in some quarters, are rejected by many. Foremost among its opponents is Daw- son, who maintains that the glacial phenomena seen over northeastern America are to be ascribed in great part to the action of polar ice borne over the submerged land by the polar current. He, however, at the same time admits the ex- istence of local glaciers in the mountainous regions, which were the cause of some of the phenomena observed. He has shown that a portion, at least, of the so-called glacial drift is clearly a submarine accumulation. Similar views are held by most of the English geologists, in opposition to those of Ramsay and Giekie, who are partisans of the hypothesis of land-olaciation. The careful studies of Searles V.Wood on the glacial deposits of southern England seem to be conclusive in favor of its submarine origin, and of the agency of floating ice from local glaciers in the distribution of the glacial drift. As regards the supposed power of land-glaciers to excavate valleys and lake-basins, Phillips of Oxford, in his address be-, fore the British Association in August, IS^S, remarks that it is " a proposition which can not be accepted until we possess more knowledge than has yet been attained regarding the resistance offered by ice to a crushing force, its tensile strength, the measure of its resistance to shearing, and other data requisite for a just estimate of the problem, which is dis- tinctly a mechanical one. At present it would appear that under a column of its own substance 1000 feet high, ice would not retain its solidity ; if so, it could not propagate a greater pressure in any direction." A small but valuable geological map of the United States, prepared for General AYalker, the superintendent of the Ninth INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. H Census of the United States, accompanies his report. This map, which was compiled by Professor C. W. Hitchcock and Professor W. P. Blake, is on a scale of about ninety miles to an inch (measuring only thirty-four by twenty-eight inches), and, although confessedly incomplete, is the best geological map which we have of the whole Union. The geological di- visions are indicated by nine colors, representing, 1st, Eozoic ; 2d, Silurian ; 3d, Devonian and Lower Carboniferous ; 4th, Coal measures; 5th, Triassic and Jurassic; 6th, Cretaceous; 7th, Tertiary ; 8th, Alluvial ; 9th, Volcanic. Professor Blake has here given us for the first time a connected view of the present state of our geological knowledge of the western half of our country; while Professor Hitchcock, as General Walker informs us, has made use, in the compilation of his portion of the map, of a great quantity of material, " both printed and in manuscript from the best geologists, collected by him for the purpose of constructing a complete geological atlas of North America," w^hich will probably soon appear. In a future geological map of the United States, it will be de- sirable to separate what is here called the Silurian into at least four divisions : 1st, The Primal and Auroral of Rogers, the Lower and Middle Cambrian of Sedgwick ; 2d, The Mati- nal of Rogers, the Upper Cambrian of Sedgwick (these two divisions being generally iHcluded under the erroneous name of Lower Silurian) ; 3d, The Medina, Clinton, Niagara, and Salina formations ; and, 4th, The Lower Helderberg consti- tuting together the true Silurian. These four great groups of strata, widely unlike in their distribution, their fauna, and their geognostical relations, mark four well-defined periods in the geological history of the continent. At a later time it will be possible to subdivide in like manner the Eozoic rocks, and to define the limits of the Laurentian, Huronian, Montal- ban, and Norian series. Economic Geology and Mineralogy. The work of devel- oping the deposits of crystalline iron ores, which lie on all sides around the rim of the great paleozoic basin, has been stimulated by the great rise in the price of English iron. The amount of ore raised from the mines of Lake Superior in 1873 was somewhat over one million of tons, equal to two thirds that amount of metallic iron ; while the produc- tion of crystalline ores from Missouri, New York, Canada, lii GENERAL SUxMMAKY OF SCIENTIFIC AND and New Jersey has also been increased ; and the scarcely less valuable brown hematite ores of the great Appalachian valley, from Vermont to Alabama, are also extensively mined. The recent completion of the Chesapeake and Ohio Rail- road, from the Ohio to tide-water, lias made more accessible the very valuable coal-field along the Kanawha, in West Vir- ^inia, from which certain valuable kinds of coal are now shipped to Richmond, Virginia, and thence to New York. The opening of new railroads in southeastern Ohio has also rendered more accessible the remarkable coal-field of the Hocking valley in that state, and large quantities of free- burning coal of great excellence are now shipped to the north and northwest from this region. The coals of the Cre- taceous formation in the Rocky Mountain region are in great part of the nature of lignite, and, although capable of being used for the generation of steam and for domestic purposes, are unfit for smelting operations in shaft or blast furnaces, and can not be made into coke. To supply these wants, charcoal has hitherto been used in Nevada, Avhile coke is shipped at great cost from Connellsville, Pennsylvania, to Utah. Mr. Eclers has lately discovered that the Cretaceous coal from Trinidad, Colorado, yields an excellent coke, which it is thought may be fit even for iron-smelting. Other dis- coveries of a similar kind are reported in that region, a fact of great importance for the metallurgical industry of the West. The deposits of native copper on the south shore of Lake Superior continue to be worked with great success, and the Calumet and Ilecla mine will yield for the year not less than 10,000 tons of metallic copper. Attention has been called by Dr. Hunt to the copper ores in the crystalline rocks of the Blue Ridge, especially those of Ducktown, Polk County, Ten- nessee; of Ore Knob, Ashe County, North Carolina; and of Carroll County,Virginia. He concludes that these great ac- cumulations of sulphuretted ores, even when, as at Ducktown, apparently conformable to the inclosing rocks, are really of posterior origin, and are concretionary deposits, similar in the manner of their formation to transverse lodes. The mine recently opened at Ore Knob, in North Carolina, is itself clearly a fissure-lode of great length and breadth, occupied by a massive ore, yielding twenty-five per cent, of copper. INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. Hii for whicli extensive Avorks for the extraction of the metal by a humid process are now being erected. The deposits throughout this region may be made to furnish large sup- pUes both of copper and of sulphuric acid, which latter can be utilized in the treatment of the phosphate of lime found near Charleston, South Carolina. This material is there in- terstratified down to considerable depths with the marls of the region, and apparently in vast and almost inexhaustible quantities. Its value for the manufacture of fertilizers is now well known, and it is shipped in great quantities both to the Northern States and to England ; besides which a large amount is manufactured into superphosphate at Charleston for the home market. The evidence accumulated goes to show that this massive and impure phosphate of lime, to which the name of eoprolite, or manure-stone, may still be given, is not of excrementitious origin, though fossil excre- ments certainly occur in many rocks, but has been deposited from solution by a process of concretion which, though little understood, is perhaps analogous to that by which flints are formed. This view is advocated by Sollas, from his study of the eoprolites from the greensand in England, which, accord- ing to him, result from the petrifaction of sj^onges by dis- solved phosphatic matter. The relation between these an- cient deposits and the guano of the Chincha Islands is closer than might be at first suspected, since the latter, according to Edwards, is not excrementitious, as commonly supposed, but rather a stratified deposit of phosphatized sponges and other low oro-anized forms. The subject of descriptive Mineralogy has, of course, re- ceived much attention on the part of mineralogists and chem- ists throughout the world ; and the new species discovered, Avith new localities for those already known, are quite nu- merous. For full details relating to this department of science, i-eference must be made to the journals specially or incidentally devoted to the subject; although some indica- tions in reference to American mineralogy may not here be amiss. Two new species have been published by Mr. Gold- schmidt : the first, Trautvnnite, a combination of chromic oxide, ferrous oxide, and magnesia, and Stibloferrite, both from California. Mr, Durant, in the Proceedings of the California Academy liv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND of Sciences, has described AragoUte, a new hydrocarbon sim- ilar to Idriollte, occurring in bright-yellow masses, impreg- nating crystalline silicious dolomite, and associated with cin- iiabarite. Dr. Endlich lias named a species Pealiie, from the collec- tions made in Dr. Hayden's expedition, this appearing to be a variety of opal, from the Geyser region of the Yellowstone. Petersen has published Giiadalcazarite, from Mexico, which contains selenium and cadmium. The most elaborate mineralogical paper which has appear- ed in the United States during the year is one upon Corun- dum^ by Dr. F. A. Genth, and published in the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. In this occur several new species, such as Kerrite^ Maconite^ Wlllcoxite, and Dud- leyite. Professor Silliman, in the Ainericcui Journcd of Sci- ence^ also describes a new species, nnder the name of Priceite, from Lone Ranch, Curry County, Oregon, and which had been already referred to by Mr. A. AY. Chase as an Oregon borate of lime or morphite. GEOGRAPHY. In the dej^artment of G eography ^ and its various subdivis- ions, the record of 1873 is quite full; although no very im- portant advances in our knowledge have been brought about, with the exception of that furnished by the voyage of the Polaris^ to which reference will be made hereaftei*. Geodesy^ Hydrography^ and Namgation. The average amount of work connected with geodetic operations in dif- ferent parts of the world has been accomplished, the various state and national surveys, both in Europe and America, having been carried forward at the usual rate. The labors of the United States Coast Survey along the coast, and in the interior by the Engineer Bureau along the Lakes, and in the Rocky Mountains by Lieutenant Wheeler, Professor Hayden, and Major Powell, to which reference will be made again, have established with great precision many important geographical positions, and connected them by tri- angulation. The shore outlines of several of the Aleutian Islands have been defined by Mr. Dall during the year, under the aus2)ices of the L'nited States Coast Survey. INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. Iv The French arc of the merifelian, or the meridian of Paris, has been extended during 1873 from Spain across the Med- iterranean, and now reaches from Shetland in the north to Algiers in the south, an extent of 30. A committee of geodesists held a meeting at Vienna during the summer, for the purpose of measuring another arc of the meridian, to extend from Christiania in the north to Palermo in the south, and possibly still farther, across the Mediterrane- an. The object is to establish a new determination of the me- ter, in which all the governments of Europe propose to unite. Although Great Britain was not represented in the congress, it is expected that she will also assist in the enterprise. Mr. Gardner, the geographer of Professor Hayden's expedi- tion, has published what he considers an improved method of taking barometric altitudes in the Rocky Mountains. Professor Rogers presented a pajDer before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at the Portland meeting, upon a method of fixing a ship's place at sea, which he considers free from some of the errors which have fre- quently led to so disastrous results. Should we include the apparatus for taking soundings at sea under the head of geodesy and hydrograj^hy, we may refer to the sounding-lines used by the Challenger^ which are said to be much stronger than any previously employed. In the construction of these the best Italian hemp was used, subsequently treated with a coating of equal parts of bees- wax and sweet-oil. As the result of this mode of preparation, with a decrease of 15 per cent, in weight of material, an in- crease of strength has been gained of from 100 to 200 per cent.; and the rapidity with which the line runs out is at least 20 per cent, greater than that of lines of tlie old con- struction. Another important improvement in sounding-lines is that suggested by Sir William Thomson, in the use of steel piano wire instead of cord, the advantages of which are that there is a much less amount of friction and greater precision of ob- servation. The results of its use by the inventor about Ma- deira and in the Pacific on board the steamer Tuscarora^ in its cruise of the past summer, are such as to show that this apparatus is most valuable and efficient, and bids fair to re- place all others. A weight of from twenty to forty pounds Ivi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND is quite sufficient to carry the wire to a depth of several thousand fathoms, whereas \vith the hempen rope a ball Aveighing* several lumdred pounds is necessary. Under the general head of Physical Geography we have nothing of special interest to report, although attention has been called to the influence of marine vegetation in enlarging the coast-line, as shown in the Indian Ocean, especially in the island of Sumatra, where the outgrowth of the mangroves alonsr the shore results in the accumulation of other vecreta- tion and the subsequent formation of soil, and the reclama- tion of a considerable extent of land from the sea. This is seen elsewhere, and may be noted on a large scale in the isl- ands off the coast of Florida. Numerous articles have appeared during the j^ear, show- ino' the relation of forests to rain-falL and an earnest effort has been made to induce the State of New York to take pos- session, by means suggested, of the head waters of the Hud- son River in the Adirondack region, and to prevent the tim- ber from beinc; removed. It is uroed that the continuance of the navigability of the Hudson is intimately connected with this precautionary measure, the experience of other parts of the world showing that, even although there may be no absolute variation in the rain-fall in a given region, its denudation of forest growth causes the water to run off very rapidly, producing dangerous freshets, to be followed by a pe- riod of extreme low water; whereas nnder normal conditions the moisture is held for a time in the forest soil as in a sjDonge, and gives off its supply gradually and uniformly throughout the year. The experience of the island of Santa Cruz is ad- duced as a warninc: of the results followino; the removal of forests, in respect to which it is stated that for many years, Avhile covered with trees, the whole of this island was fertile and liabitable, whereas in consequence of the gradual de- struction of the forests the island is rapidly drying np, and, unless precautionary steps are taken, bids lair to become an uninhabitable desert. As a preliminary to the subject of Explorations and Re- searches^ we may refer to several communications which have appeared in reference to great areas of the earth's surface at present unexplored, a Avriter in The Academy remarking that of these there are four, of great extent, never traversed INDUISTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. Ivii by civilized man, constituting in all about one-seventeenth part of the globe. Of these the greatest is the antarctic re- gion, the next that about the north pole, the third is in Cen- tral Africa, and the fourth in Western Australia. To the south polar region the nearest approach was made by Ross in 1842, in latitude 78 10', south of Xew Zealand, while the nearest to the north pole w^as by Captain Hall, in 82 16'. The unexplored portion of Africa reaches on the west very closely to the coast, that near the equator having been driv- en inland by Du Chaillu and Walker. The expedition un- der Lieutenant Grandy will probably successfully pierce the centre of this portion. In Australia the unknown area lies to the west of the tract explored from south to north by Stu- art in 18G1. The combined areas of uninvestigated regions, according to the writer referred to, amount to over eleven and a half millions of square miles. In proceeding to consider the special explorations made in the different parts of the world, we begin with those of the ocean in general ; and of these the most notable is that of the Challenger^ of which a detailed account will be found on page 243. We may mention, however, briefly, that this steamer of 2300 tons, fitted out with every means for scientific research, under Captain Nares, and with Professor Wy ville Thomson as scientific director, left Portsmouth on the 21st of December, 1872, and after entering the Mediterranean, and making some masinetic observations there, sailed thence for Madeira and TeneriflTe ; after which she proceeded to Sombrero in the West Indies, and to St. Thomas. On the 24th of March she left St. Thomas for Bermuda ; from this island to a point off the American coast, near New York, and thence to Halifax. From Halifax she went back again to Bermuda, and from Bermuda to the Azores ; from the Azores to Madeira, and from Madeira to the Cape Yerde Islands, which she left on the 27th of July for Bahia in Brazil; thence proceeding, by way of Tristan d'Acunha, to the Cape of Good Hope, where she arrived safely. The results of this expedition, so fiir, have been of great service in establishino; the true contour of the Atlantic sea- bed, in determining points of temperature and currents, and in brincjino; to lisrht vast numbers of new and interestins; an- imal forms. 3* Iviii GENERAL SUMxMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND 111 tlic way of explorations of the Mediterranean, the prin- cipal labor has been that prosecuted by M. Lacaze-Duthiers on the JVarval^ a French vessel emi)loyed in the hydrograph- ic survey of the coast of Algeria. The special object of M. Duthiers was the re-examination of the coral banks investi- gated by him in 1860 to 1862 ; this w^as successfully accom- plished, and resulted in securing much interesting informa- tion in regard to the growth of coral animals in general. Dr. Carpenter had announced, as the result of his observa- tions in the Mediterranean in 1871, that animal life w'as very much restricted in that sea, owing to the great accumulation of carbonic acid, induced by the want of circulation of the water in consequence of the bar across the entrance at the Strait of Gibraltar; and he further stated that animal life below 150 fixthoms was very scanty, and still more so at 200 fathoms. Lacaze-Duthiers, however, as the result of his la- bors, does not concur in this generalization, as very large col- lections of specimens, including several novelties, were ob- tained. A report has been published by Dr. Oscar Schmidt of explorations in the Adriatic made in 1870 on the Austrian steamer Trieste. An interestina; result of his researches was the discovery of Batliyhius at depths of fifty fathoms or more, and also of a second protozoan organism, which he calls JRhcibdoUthus. Explorations off the coast of N'ortli America during 1873 have been very extensive, and fruitful in important results. A report of explorations in 1872, on the Canadian vessel Stella Maris^ has been published by Mr. Whiteaves, an in- teresting fact recorded therein being the existence of a tem- perature of 32 at the bottom of the sea near Bonaventure Island. The labors of Mr. AVhiteaves were continued in 1873, and, as before, Avere prosecuted in the Gulf of St. Law- rence. Two weeks were devoted to the investigjation of the greatest depths, between Anticosti and the Gaspe peninsula. The northern entrance to the Bay of Chaleur was examined on the second cruise. The third extended between Cape I^reton and Prince Edward's Island, and the fourth included both sides of Northumberland Strait, from Pictou to Mira- michi Bay. Numerous collections were made on this expe- dition, and much important information secured in regard to INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. Hx the oyster beds of Kew Brunswick and Prince Edward's Isl- and. The most notable exploration, how^ever, on the American coast, was that prosecuted by the United States Fish Com- mission, under the direction of Professor Baird and Professor Verrill. Peak's Island, in Portland harbor, was selected as the centre of operations for the summer, and afforded the opportunity for the gathering of a large number of special- ists, either connected directly wdth the service, or joining it for the sake of the facilities given for the study of marine life. The United States steam-tug Blue Light^ properly equip- ped and fitted for the service, and under the command of Captain L. A. Beardslee, U. S. N., w^as placed at the disposal of the Commission by the Secretary of the Navy, and was constantly employed in its labors from the beginning of July until toward the middle of September. All the apparatus for deep-sea research used by the foreign expeditions w^as em- ployed in this exploration, and the results promise to be of the utmost importance, both in their scientific and econom- ical relationships. The primary object of the Commission was, of course, the determination of questions connected with the fisheries of the coast, and the boundaries, limitations, and conditions influ- encing them ; but collaterally, also, an exhaustive investiga- tion of the currents, ocean temperatures, chemical composi- tion of the water, and every thing bearing upon or connected with the fauna or flora of the sea. In addition to the Blue Bight, the service for a month, of the United States steamer Bache was granted to the Commis- sion by the Superintendent ol the Coast Survey, the vessel be- ing under command of Captain Howell. Dr. Packard took charge of the biological investigation on board this vessel, in behalf of the Commission, assisted by Mr. Cook. As the cruises of the Bache w^ere considerably outside of the limits possible for the Blue Bight, a large part of the region be- tween Cape Cod and the Georges, ofi" the coasts of Massa- chusetts, ISTew Hampshire, and Maine, was explored. The re- sults secured by this expedition were too extensive to be stated w^ithin the limits of our Summary, and the detailed account must be looked for in the reports of the Commission Ix GENERAL SUMMAKY OF SCIENTIFIC AND and in a lecture extra of the New York Tribune published in September last. Ordeei)-sea explorations on the Pacific coast, those of most interest were prosecuted under the direction of the Coast Survey and the Navy Department. Mr. William II. Dall, in charge of the Coast Survey vessel the Yukon, was engaged in surveying the westernmost of the Aleutian Islands and their approaches, with special reference to the question of a deep-sea cable between the United States and Japan ; and at the same time some interesting facts were collected in regard to the physical condition of the sea bottom, which will be found detailed on page 246. The exploration on the part of the United States Navy was conducted on board the steamer Tascarora, under Command- er Belknap, and resulted in obtaining sections of several im- portant lines of soundings. Specimens of the sea bottom collected by the Tuscarora^ and forwarded to the Bureau of Navigation, have been transmitted by Commodore Ammers to the National Museum for investigation. Of late years the vmknown regions about the north pole have occupied much attention on the part of geographers, whose interest lias been greatly intensified by the wonderful experiences of the Polaris and her party, Avhich prove that the " proper gateway to the pole," as maintained by Mr. Clements R. Markham, of London, and other British authori- ties, is by way of Smith's Sound, or along the track of the Polaris; although others, as Captain T. C.Wells, still insist that the Spitzbergen seas offer superior advantages. Al- though our knowledge of this region rests almost exclusively upon the discoveries of America, Great Britain manifests a laudable inclination to enter the field ; and it is quite prob- able that early in 18*74 an expedition, either public or private, will be sent out from England to Smith's Sound. A move- ment lookinc: toward securins: uovernment aid has been com- raenced by the Royal Geographical and the Royal Societies of London ; and although, w^hen approached on the subject in ISYO, the British authorities decided that the Challenger ex- pedition was all that could be undertaken at that time, it is Jioped that a polar exploration will be authorized for 1874. The history of arctic exploration as actually prosecuted during the year 1873 contains several very interesting chap- INDUSTKIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. Ixi ters, embracing rather the completion and results of enter- prises commenced previously than new enterprises begun. By far the most important results are connected with the history of the Polaris^ the American vessel which, as our readers are aware, left Washington in midsummer of 1871, under Captain Charles F. Hall. No advices were received of this vessel until the spring of 1873, when the public was startled by the announcement tliat a portion of her crew had been picked up adrift on the coast of Labrador and brought into the harbor of St. John's, Newfoundland. This fact having been properly authenti- cated, the Secretary of the Navy sent a steamer, the Frolic^ to St. John's for the purpose of bringing the rescued party to Washington, where an examination by a Commission ap- pointed for the purpose gave to the public, in authentic form, tlie history of the expedition, which will be found detailed at length on page 237. To sum up briefly the general rec- ord, we may state that the vessel proceeded with but little impediment as far north as latitude 82 16', wliich point was attained on the 30th day of August, and where further prog- ress was arrested by the ice, and it became necessary to go into winter-quarters. These were established in Thank God Harbor, in Polaris Bay ; and after every thing was in order, Captain Hall started on a sledge journey to the north. He returned after the lapse of two weeks ; and shortly after go- ing on board his Yessel, died of an attack of hemij^legia. The party spent the winter at this point, and as early as possible in the following summer made several attempts by boat and sledge to proceed northward, but being unable to make headway, finally reached the vicinity of Littleton Isl- and, about sixty miles north of Northumberland Island. Here, on one occasion, being threatened with the ice, nineteen of the party went from the vessel to an adjacent floe for the j)urpose of removing provisions and supplies which were thrown over from the vessel. While this was in progress a storm arose, which tore the vessel from her fastenino-s to the ice, leaving the nineteen persons still upon the floe, who, after drifting for fifteen hundred miles, during a period of about six months, were rescued, as stated, by the crew of the seal- ing steamer Tigress. The dangerous situation of the Polaris, and the uncertain- Ixii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND ty ill regard to tlie party remaining on board, induced the Secretary of the Navy to send a relief expedition, consisting of the Juniata and the Tigress^ the latter having been pur- chased for the purpose. In the mean time the party on the Polaris went ashore, and established a second winter camp, and early in the fol- lowino; June started out in two boats for the western side of Baffin's Bay, in hopes of meeting some whaling vessel. They were found and picked up by a Dundee whaling steamer, the Ravenscraig^ from which vessel they were transferred to the Arctic and the Intrepid^ and carried in safety to Dundee, Scotland, from which point they returned to Washington. The only casualty during the expedition consisted in the death of Captain Hall. Although many of the records and a large portion of the natural-history collections were lost, the general results were of the highest value, and will form the subject of a special report on the j^art of Dr. Bessels, the chief of the scientific corps. They embrace determinations of the tides, the mag- netism, the meteorology, the hydrography, and the natural history of the polar regions. A notable move in the way of arctic search was also made by some Dundee steam whaling vessels, of which eight were fitted out, and met with more or less success. One of these, the Arctic^ was accompanied by Captain Markham, of the Koyal Navy, who visited the Greenland seas for the purpose of familiarizing himself with the details of arctic travel, ex- l^ccting to be connected with the anticipated British expedi- tion in 1874. This vessel touched at several portions of the North, especially the old encampment of Captain Parry, of fifty years ago, where they found stores and supplies in good condition, including meat cans, with the contents still per- fectly palatable. It was to this vessel that the Polaris crew was transferred from the Pavenscraig and taken to Scotland. Less productive in scientific results than the voyage of the Polaris was the Swedish expedition under Professor Nor- denskjold, which had for its object the prosecution of arctic search to the north of Spitzbergen by means of sledges drawn by reindeer. This expedition proceeded to Spitzbergen dur- ing the summer of 1872, but was unfortunately beset by the ice earlier in the season than was anticipated ; and a supply INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. Ixiii vessel, only intended to carry provisions and stores for the benefit of the exploring party, was itself caught in the ice and obliged to pass the winter there. Notwithstanding this great increase of the force, by the judicious efforts of its offi- cers, all were kept in perfect health and condition but one man dying, and he of consumption. Professor Nordenskjold found that his anticipation of suc- cessful exploration by sledges could not be realized the ice proving too rough in some places, and too soft in others. The highest point attained by him was 80 30'. Finding this enterprise unsuccessful, the expedition returned home in the summer of 1873. Many interesting facts were obtained in regard to meteor- ological and other physical phenomena, considered of great value by Dove and others, and some collections in natural history were made, although nothing of any very great mo- ment. It was, however, fully established that no reliance can be placed upon sledge journeys, whether drawn by dogs, reindeer, or men, for extended polar explorations, although as a collateral they may be of much advantage. Simultaneously with the ice embargo of the government expedition, several Norwegian whalers were detained in the same manner, and although some of them succeeded in get- ting away, the remainder were obliged to remain during the winter, and, we regret to say, all died of scurvy and other diseases. Another arctic expedition was that of Mr. Leigh Smith, who left Dundee on the 10th of May for Spitzbergen, having chartered the steam yacht Diana of Mr. Lamont for the pur- pose. His own vessel, the 8amp8on^ was also dispatched for Spitzbergen as a relief vessel, and spent most of the season in a very successful seal-hunt. Mr. Smith proceeded to Seven Islands, in latitude 80 50', and made that the centre of research, the highest point at- tained being 81. Numerous specimens of the walrus and the polar bear were secured, and some observations Avere made on polarity, magnetism, etc. The anticipated results were interfered with by the stormy weather of the season, and the expedition returned to Dundee on the 27th of September. Among the practical discoveries by Mr. Smith Avas that of banks of codfish, Avhich it is quite likely may become the sub- Ixiv GENERAL SU.MMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND ject of a ])rofital>le fishery. Ca])taiii AVolls, wlio accompa- nied Mr. Smitli, still remains of the opinion that the Spitz- bergen route to the pole is the most eligible, Anotlier expedition to Spitzbergen was that of Dr. Richard von Drasche, who left Tromso on the 30th of June, in a small vessel, with tlie sjjecial object of making some geological ex- plorations, and, reaching the southern part of West Spitzber- gen on the 10th of July, arrived in Bell Sound on the 16th. Here he met Professor Nordenskjuld, then on a boat expedi- tion to the North. Much of the time was spent at Amster- dam Island and Prince Charles Foreland, the expedition re- turning: to Ilammerfest on the 27th of AuGfust. Nothing very definite has so fiir been brought to light in 1873 in reference to the region east of Spitzbergen, although visited by many Norwegian hunting and fishing vessels. It is, however, probable that Professor Mohn, of Christiania, who is in communication with most of these parties, Avill before lono- make some communication as to their results. Of Xova Zembla and the Sea of Kara, nothing new is known, although, as having been visited equally Avith the seas east of Spitzbergen by Norwegian vessels, something may yet be learned. The Russian Siberian arctic expedition, under Tscheka- nowski, and well provided Avitli specialists, reached Jerbo- chotsclio, the last Russian settlement on the Tunguska (lat. 01 17' N.), on the 20th of June, and proceeded to the explo- ration of the surrounding countrv. Much information was obtained in regard to geology and natural history, and large collections sent to St. Petersburg. The party expected to return to Irkutsk about the end of October, and then soon to start again on a united journey to a station on the Tun- guska, from which to carry on the exploration of the Olenek and Lena. The prime object of the expedition appears to be principally the accurate determination of the courses of the two rivers just mentioned. No advices whatever were received during 1873 from the Tegethoff^ of the Austrian expedition, which left Bremerha- ven on the 13th of June, 1872, nnder Payer and Weyprecht. The party expected to Avinter on the coast of Siberia, and thence extend their travels northward. Tlie vessel was last met with on the 29th of August, steaming eastward, oif Cape INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. Ixv Nassau, Nova Zembla. We trust that the next communi- cation will be of a successful enterprise in that unknown region. No apprehension seems to be entertained of any disaster to the party. In connection Avitli tlie problems of arctic discovery, tlie occurrence of drift-wood in the northern seas, and the de- termination of its origin and character, are matters of much interest, this having been found by the Polaris party in con- siderable quantity in Polaris Bay, and existing in very great abundance on the shores of Nova Zembla. The first-men- tioned specimens have not yet been critically examined ; the last consist mainly of willow, although pieces of beech near- ly a foot in diameter, and several species of pine, have been observed. It is supposed that a large portion of this materi- al must have been derived from the Petschora, Obi, and Yen- isei rivers of Siberia, showing^ the existence of a current from the mouths of those streams. None of it is believed to have been furnished by the Gulf Stream. The first portion of the report of the great German expe- dition to East Greenland in ISGO-YO, under Captain Kolde- way, on board the Hansa and the Germania^ has been pub- lished, and is devoted principally to the account of prepa- rations for the voyage and the special history of the Hansa. It will be remembered that this vessel was wrecked, and that her crew had a somewhat similar experience to that of the Polaris party, drifting for nearly the same period, from the coast of East Greenland down nearly to its eastern extrem- ity, covering, however, in the same time only about half the number of miles. A second division of the report, including the botany and the zoology, is about making its appearance. Dr. Neumayer, of Vienna, has continued his efforts to in- duce the Austrian government to make an exploration of the antarctic region, but little of any special moment having been done in that j^art of the world since Ross' expedition in 1842. It is more than likely that the transit of Venus in 1874 will be made the occasion on the part of several nations to visit the antarctic regions. As preliminary to this and to the transit work, an elaborate document has been printed by the Board of Trade of Eno-land in reference to the meteorol- ogy of the antarctic portion of the globe. Ixvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND The year 18V3 will long be marked for tlie extent and im- portance of tlie geographical and other explorations prose- cuted in various j^arts of North America, the number being so great that we can but briefly allude to the more impor- tant. We have already referred to the hydrographic results of Mr. Dall's labors in the Aleutian Islands ; and we may add in continuation that some very important collections in the line of geology, natural history, and archaeology were se- cured. Complete collections of birds and their eggs, and mammals, were obtained, as w^ell as invertebrates in very great number and variety ; but perhaps the most interesting of all were the prehistoric remains found in caves in Una- lashka. Mr. Henry Elliott, to whose residence in the Pribalov, or Fur-Seal Islands, in Behring Sea, as assistant treasury agent, we referred in the Annual for 1872, remained there until the summer of 1873, when he returned, bringing the results of his labors. These consisted of numerous sketches illustrat- ing the topography of the island, the natural history of the seal and the walrus, and the incidents attendant upon their capture, and, with the accompanying descriptive matter, fur- nish very important and valuable information in regard to an interest which brings a large income to the United States government. This material has been put to press by the Secretary of the Treasury, and Avill shortly be published. Mr, Elliott brought back with him, in continuation of the la- bors of 1872, large collections in natural history, especially of the birds and their eggs, which, taken in connection with what Mr. Dall has also done, leaves little more to be desired as to a knowledge of the land vertebrates found in the Aleu- tian Islands. In British North America, a great deal of activity has also been manifested by our brethren of the Dominion. The la- bors of the Geological Survey of Canada have been extended far to the west. Vancouver Island was surveyed in consid- erable part by Mr. George Richardson, resulting in the dis- covery of important beds of iron, coal, and limestone. jNIr. Selwyn, the chief of the Geological Survey, has prose- cuted a preliminary examination of the Hudson's Bay Ter- ritory from Fort Gariy to the upper waters, to the north, of the Saskatchewan, a distance of 105G miles, extending over INDUSTRIAL PKOGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. Ixvii ISj degrees of longitude, the whole accomplished in forty- days of actual travel. The return journey, of about 1400 miles, occupied thirty-five days. The necessary rapidity of this journey of course did not permit a very minute investi- gation of the country ; but among other practical results, two seams of bituminous coal, one of them measuring from eighteen to twenty feet in thickness, were discovered be- tween the Saskatchewan and the Rocky Mountains, a fact of much importance in connection with the location of the Canadian Pacific Railway in that vicinity. Mr. G. N. Dawson, geologist of the British division of the N^orth American Boundary Commission, to which reference is made farther on, was also eno-ao-ed in the oreoloo-ical ex- ploration of the region extending from the Lake of the Woods to a considerable distance westward. Lignite-bearing strata were found on the Souris River, and on some of the north- western tributaries of the Missouri, a fact likely to be of much interest in the future settlement of the country. Professor Bell has completed the examination necessary for a geological map of the country lying to the north and west of Lake Superior, and overlapping the region explored by Mr. Dawson. Official surveys for the line of the Canadian Pacific Rail- road have also been prosecuted, resulting in what is asserted to be a practicable route, free from many of the general ob- jections ; and Mr. Charles Horetzky, a member of the survey, took numerous photographs of the scenery along the route. We regret to learn that, by a fire in Ottawa, the greater part of the notes and maps of this survey have been destroyed, possibly making it necessary to repeat the reconnoissance. The labors of the Canadian Geological Survey in the better- known portions of the Dominion are of less general interest, although adding considerably to the details of our informa- tion. The coal-fields of Cape Breton have been thoroughly investigated during the present season by Mr. Charles Robb, and his report is expected to prove of much statistical and practical importance. We next proceed to the consideration of the more impor- tant enterprises of the United States south of the forty-ninth parallel. The first of these to be mentioned is the International Ixviii GENERAL SUMMAKY OF SCIENTIFIC AND Northern ]>oiindary Survey, intended to complete tlie labor of establishing the true northern boundary between the United States and I)ritisli America. Many years ago the eastern section, from Maine to the Lake of the Woods, Avas de- fined by Colonel J. D. Graham and others ; "while the marking of the western, extending from the Pacific coast to the Ilocky Mountains, Avas brought to a close in 1861, under the Com- niissionership of Mr. Archibald Campbell. Tlie labor upon the remainder of the line, between the Rocky Mountains and the Lake of the Woods, was under- taken in 1872, also under the direction of Mr. Archibald Campbell as Commissioner, and prosecuted vigorously in 1873. Major Twining, a prominent officer of the Engineers, had charge of the physical work, while the natural-history survey was intrusted to Dr. Elliott Coues, a surjxeon of the United States Army, and a well-known naturalist. During the year 1872, the interval between Pembina and the Lake of the Woods was carefully marked out ; and in 1873 several hundred miles have been carried farther to the west, and it is thought that the work will be mainly com- pleted in another season. Thanks to the facilities furnished by Mr. Campbell, Dr. Coues was enabled to make very ex- tensive collections in natural history, and his report to the Commissioner will doubtless present facts of much interest. Another expedition of great magnitude was that fitted out by the War Department for the protection of the surveying parties of the Northern Pacific Railway, consisting of about 2000 men in all. This force was placed in charge of'General Stanley, and concentrated at Foit Abraham Lincoln, on the Missouri. It was composed often companies of cavalry, un- der the command of Colonel Custer, and tliree battalions of infantry, and was ninety-six days in the field. A large por- tion of the railroad-line was located by the engineers accom- panying the party, less trouble having been had with the Indians than was anticipated. In accordance with the liberal policy of the Secretary of War, a scientific party accompanied tliis expedition, consist- ing of Mr. J. A. Allen, of Cambridge, as naturalist in chief, and Mr. C. W. Rennett as assistant naturalist ; Dr. L. R. Kettre as mineralogist ; Mr. Konopicky as artist ; and Mr. Pywcll, as pliotographer. The region traversed proved to INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. Ixix be less rich in natural objects than was anticipated, but large collections were made ; and the report to be made by Mr. Allen will prove an important contribution to science. Another War Department exjDedition was that under the direction of Captain Jones, U. S. Engineers, having for its object the determination of a suitable pass through the Wind River jMountains. This accomplished its mission ; and in the observations and collections made by Dr. C. C. Parry, Mr. J. D. Putnam, Professor Comstock, and other civilian officers of the party, much was done in addition for science in general. Pre-eminent in the mao:nitude of their o-eneral results o-eo- graphical, geological, physical, and biological are the two great expeditions of Dr. Ilayden and Lieutenant Wheeler, which have been carried on in continuation of the labors of previous years, for the details of which we refer to the arti- cles on pages 226, 232, 236, 248, and 251, respectively. The results accomplished by these expeditions have been of the highest importance. The labors of Major Po^Vell have also been prosecuted with zeal, especially in the way of completing the great map of the Colorado Valley, and securing reliable information and collections relating to the Ute and other tribes of Indians. Professor Marsh and party returned to l^ew Haven, No- vember Vth, after an absence of five months in the Rocky Mountain region and on the Pacific coast. The present ex- pedition had the same object in view as those of previous years, viz., a study of the vertebrate fossils of the West, espe- cially those of the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations. The firstexplorations of the year were made in the Pliocene depos- its near the Niobrara River. The party fitted out in June at Fort McPherson, Nebraska, and, accompanied by an es- cort of two companies of U. S. cavalry, proceeded to the Ni- obrara, and worked in that country for several weeks. Ow- ing to hostile Indians, the explorations of the party here were attended with much difficulty and danger, but were on the whole quite successful. Many new animals were discov- ered, and ample material secured, for a full investigation of those previously known from that region. A second expedition was made in August from Fort Bridg- er, Wyoming, and large collections of Eocene fossil verte- lx.>c GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND bratcs were obtained, especially of the Dlnocerata, Quadni- mana^ and Cheiroptera^ which had iirst been brought to light by the researches of the party in previous years. A third trip Avas made in September to the Tertiary beds of Idaho and Oregon, where some interesting discoveries were made. The party went from Oregon to San Francisco by sea, nar- rowly esca2:)ing shipwreck, and then returned East by rail. On the way, short visits were made to localities in the Mio- cene of Colorado and the Cretaceous of Kansas, to complete investigations began last year. The expedition as a whole was very successful, not merely on account of the large number of new animals discovered, but also on account of the exten- sive collections made to complete the study of those pre- viously found. All the collections secured are now in the museum of Yale College. In Middle America, the principal fact is the completion of the surveys for the Interoceanic Canal, several different lines, as the Isthmus of Darien, the Isthmus of Nicaragua, and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, having been surveyed by United States naval officers. The reports of these gentlemen are now in the hands of the committee appointed for their criti- cism, and will be made the subject of a careful comparison ; and tlio best route for the canal, with the possibilities of its construction, will doubtless soon be officially presented. Professor William M. Gabb, of Philadelphia, was engaged during the year in carrying on a very important exploration in Costa Rica, in the vicinity of the projected raihvay, and in the interest of both the railway and the government. He was accompanied, as zoologist, by Mr. J. Zeledon, an attache of the Smithsonian Institution, and a native of Costa Rica. A very extensive collection of natural history and ethnology has been already forwarded by Mr. Gabb to Washington, lor the ])urpose of being investigated and described. This ex- pedition, in the magnitude of its zoological and geological collations, promises to be of great importance. Mr. Osbert Salvin, Avell known from his explorations in Cen- tral America, has returned to that country, wdth a view of clearing up some questions connected Avith its natural histo- ry, and, in his specialty of birds and butterflies, Mill doubt- less obtain important results. In the way of exj)lorations in South America, we have to INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. Ixxi record a second visit by Professor Orton to the region of the Andes. His first exploration, some years ago, having been made via Guayaquil and Quito, and thence down the Ama- zon, he reversed the route on the present occasion, proceed- ing directly from New York to Para, and thence up the riv- er. He has lately returned to Poughkeepsie, and resumed his duties as a professor in Vassar College. The South American governments exhibit a laudable dis- position to acquire a knowledge of their internal resources, partially with a view of inducing European and American immigration, Peru especially having undertaken this labor on a very large scale, by the appointment of a corps of En- glish scientists for the purpose. A noteworthy incident of the Fourth of July was the as- cent of the highest mountain in Peru by a party of American eno'ineers eno-ao-ed in constructinir a trans- Andean railway. In the Galera Pass of the Andes is situated what is claimed to be the highest village in the world, being 15,580 feet above the level of the sea. The altitude of the peak ascended Avas found to be 17,574 feet. At two o'clock P.M. the ther- mometer indicated a temperature of j)lus 36, with a baro- metric pressure of eight pounds to the square inch. A "Coast Pilot" of the coast of Brazil has lately been pub- lished by the United States Hydrographic Office, which will doubtless be of much service to navigators. Of explorations in the Polynesian regions we have the re- port of the expedition of Dr. Bernstein to the Moluccas, and of Meyer, D'Albertis, and McCleur in New Guinea, with no specially important discoveries on their part, although to or- nithologists the acquisition of some new species of birds of paradise is an interesting fact. From Beccari, an Italian traveler in New Guinea, advices have been received to the date of the 27th of August, writ- ten at Tual, in the island of Kei Dulan, where he had just ar- rived from the island of Aru. He announced at that date the acquisition of large numbers of plants, about 600 specimens of birds, mostly in skins, and some skeletons, representing about 125 species. He had also secured exhaustive collec- tions in all other branches of natural science, among them some interesting crania. Accounts of the journey of the Archimandrite Palladius, Ixxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND and that of tlic Abbe David, in China, have been publish- ed, as well as further details of the explorations of Baron von Kiehtofen. All these constitute interesting additions to our knowledge of the geography as well as the geology and natural history of the great Asiatic empire. Collections of the Abbe David, made within the last few years, have been rich in remarkable specimens of natural history; and we regret to announce that all the results of his later labo;-s in China were lost by the upsetting of the boat containing the collec- tions, on one of the Chinese rivers. Some interesting and important geographical discoveries have been made on the banks of the Upper Irtish by Messrs. Matusolfsky and Miroschnichenko, under the direction of Poltoratsky. In this exploration the Altai Mountains were visited, and astronomical positions and altitudes of various towns, lakes, and mountains ascertained. Some of the peaks of these mountains rise to a height of 12,000 feet, or consid- erably above the level of the snow-line. Palestine has dui-ing the year been the subject of several investigations, consisting especially in the labors of the Brit- ish and American Exploration Societies. By an arrangement between the two bodies, the region east of the Jordan and the Dead Sea has been assigned especially to the American Society, and the report of Lieutenant Steever, U. S. A., re- cently received and published in New York, contains grati- fying evidence of activity. On the 19tli of March the expe- dit'ion left Beirout for the plains of Moab, and a camp was established at Iletbon for the j)urpose of prosecuting the tri- angulation and survey of the country. In the course of five months some six hundred square miles were triangulated, and the details of an accurate map on the scale of one inch to the mile have been obtained. Numerous sketches were made by Professor Paine and his party in the vicinity of the camp, and many problems were solved that have long per- ])lexed the historian. The expedition got back to Beirout on the I'Zth of September, after which Lieutenant Steever re- turned to the United States, with a view of lavinc: before the committee the results of his labors and of securing the means of further research. Dr. Beke, under the impression that the true position of JMount Sinai has not been satisfactorily established, and that INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. Lxxiii the elevation supposed to be entitled to that name is at some distance from it, after much effort, has secured the means of visiting the peninsula for the purpose of determining for him- self this interestino: fact. The Russian campaign during the last summer, which re- sulted in the capture of Khiva, has also been directly and in- directly the means of important geographical discovery, which will be presented in proper form in due course of time. The chief political result has been the expansion of the Russian sway over the right bank of the Oxus, east of the Aral Riv- er. The region has hitherto been proverbially unsafe for travelers; and it is quite a remarkable fact that newspa- per correspondents write freely from points where, a year ago, they would have ventured upon it at the peril of their lives. The interior of Yemen, in the southern part of the Arabian peninsula, has been explored by Holloway, who expects to clear up many problems in reference to the geography of the resfion. As usual, numerous explorations have been prosecuted in Africa, but without any very startling result, nothing at all equal to the discovery of Livingstone in 1872 by Stanley be- ing recorded. Livingstone -search expeditions, one under Lieutenant Cameron, by way of Zanzibar, and one under Lieu- tenant Grandy, by way of the Congo, have been heard of at various points, but nothing very important has been devel- oped by their labors.* The French expedition, under Compiegne and Marche, left the Gaboon on the 3d of May, and arrived at the village of Doninalonga on the 10th of June. After spending some months in the study of the country, these gentlemen started again on the 15 th of October for the upper part of the Ogowe, known as the Okanda. * As this Summary is passing through the press, telegraphic advices have been received in England from Zanzibar announcing the death of Dr. Liv- ingstone in Lobiser on the 15th of August last. In this it is stated that Liv- ingstone died after crossing "Mars Les," with water at one time for three hours above his waist. Members of Lieutenant Cameron's party were suf- fering from fever and ophthalmia, but would await the arrival of the remains, and bring them to Ujiji, whence they would be conveyed to Zanzibar for transfer to England. Ixxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND Sir Samuel Baker and liis wife have returned to England, after their long stay in Africa, which they spent in the inter- est of the Kliedive of Egypt for commercial and political purposes. The objects of tiie expedition were successfully accomplished, and a large part of the adjacent African terri- tory was thoroughly explored, and brought under the domin- ion of the Khedive. The news from Dr. Nachtigal, who has been exploring the region about Baghirmi to the southeast of Lake Tchad, is not very recent. A most important enterprise in the way of African research was that w^hich was commenced in December, 1873, by Dr. Gerhard Rohlfs, having for its object the exploration of the Lybian Desert and its oases. This is prosecuted under the auspices of the Khedive of Egypt, and is provided with every thing necessary for successful work, including a large cara- van of camels carrying water-tanks, so as to be independent of any other means of water supply. Dr. Rohlfs is accom- panied by Dr. Ascherson, Dr. Zittel, and other eminent Ger- man naturalists. From Australia there is little note of results actually ac- complished, although we have an interesting report of the work done by Mr. Giles in 1872. In liis last African exploration, Dr. Schweinfiirth discovered a river, believed to be previously unknown, and called by him the Uelle, and in regard to which it is still a problem whether it connects with the Schari, emptying into Lake Tchad, or with the Ogowai, a tributary of the Atlantic Ocean. Another problem still unsolved is as to whether the Albert Nyanza connects or not with the Tanganyika. The Lualaba of Livingstone is considered by the German geographers to be a tributary of the Congo, and not of the Nile. With a view of settling these and other interesting ques- tions. Dr. Bastian, of the Geographical Society of Berlin, in- terested himself in the formation of a new body, or rather a committee from the Geographical Societies of Dresden, Leip- zig, Berlin, Hamburg, Frankfort-on-the-Main, and Munich, which was entitled the African Society, and having for its special object the prosecution of researches in Western Afri- ca, as the portion of the continent where its efforts would be most productive of results. An expedition on the part of INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. Ixxv this society left for its field of labor on the 30th of May, un- der the charge of Dr. Paul Giissfeldt, of Berlin, assisted by' Messrs. Von Hattorf and Gorschen. One division, accompa- nied by Dr. Bastian, went by w^ay of Lisbon to Cabinda, at the mouth of the Congo ; while Giissfeldt and Von Hattorf, sailing in the Nigritia for Sierra Leone, were unfortunately wrecked on the passage. This took place, however, near the shore, and although the instruments were not saved, no lives were lost. New apparatus, however, was promptly trans- mitted to the party, which duly started forth on its mission, and news of a successful result to their labors is shortly ex- pected. ANTHROPOLOGY. During 1873 Anthropological and Ethnological studies have been vigorously pursued in Europe, and the literature relatino' to these sciences has received valuable additions. Darwinism, especially, continues to be a favorite topic of dis- cussion, and essays in various languages, supporting or com- bating that theory, are constantly leaving the press. Much attention is paid to the comparison of skulls, either of vari- ous races of man, or of those of man and of the higher ani- mals. The Anthropological Societies of Great Britain and Ireland, of France, of Germany (with branch societies at Ber- lin, Stuttgart, Danzig, Freiburg, Hamburg, Mainz, Heidel- berg, and Gottingen), have continued their labors with great activity. Concerning the Anthropological Society of Great Britain and L-eland, not long ago established by a union of the Anthropological and Ethnological Societies of London, it must be mentioned that a separation again has taken place, a number of its members having seceded and formed the London Anthropological Society. An Anthropological Soci- ety has been founded at Stockholm, Sweden, by the exertions of Dr. Gustav Retzius, son of the well-known anatomist, An- dres Retzius. The first meeting took place on the 15th of March of this year. The next International Anthropological Congress will be held at Stockholm in 1874. The European periodical publications relating to anthropology, ethnology, etc., have appeared as before, and contain a great amount of interestins: information. Some of the more important results of practical research are here given : Ixxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND Additional traces of lacustrine constructions have been discovered by Mr. Yon Schab near the Isle of Roses (Rosen- insel), in Lake Starenbcrg, Bavaria. Their existence was pointed out in 18C4 by Professors Von Siebold and Desor. Objects of stone and bronze have been found, but none of iron. Professor Desor's view, that the island in question is of artificial origin, like the crannoges in Ireland, is not con- firmed by Mr. Von Schab. Remains of palafittes also have been pointed out in vari- ous mountain lakes of Austria by Count F. von Wurmbrand and Dr. M. Much. The most important of these pile-works is situated in the 3Iondsee (moon-lake), near its outlet. It covers an area of 3000 square meters, and contains, on a moderate calculation, 5000 piles. Among the objects found at this place are highly finished pierced axes of serpentine, wedges, grinding-stones, and vessels of clay largely mixed with calcareous sand. The larger fabrics of clay are without ornamentation, but the smaller ones show concentric circles and various other geometrical patterns. All this earthen- ware, though made without the assistance of the turner's wheel, is distinguished for elegance of shape. Of particular interest are some vessels of pure clay, provided with massive handles. They show the unmistakable traces of long ex- posure to heat, and in one particles of molten brass or copper were found, a circumstance which proves that they served as melting-pots. This station, it is supposed, belonged orig- inally to the stone age, while its later inhabitants were ac- quainted with the use of bronze. The above-named gentle- men will continue their researches. Mr. Frank Calvert claims to have discovered in the vicin- ity of the Dardanelles conclusive evidence of the existence of man during the miocene period of the tertiary formation. He says : " From the face of a cWW composed of strata of that period, at a geological depth of 800 feet, I have myself extracted a fragment of the joint of a bone of either a dino- theriura or a mastodon, on the convex side of which is deeply incised the unmistakable figure of a horned quadruped, with arched neck, lozenge-shaped chest, long body, straight fore- leojs, and broad feet. There are also traces of seven or eiirht other figures, which, together with the hindquarters of the first, are nearly obliterated. I have also found, not far from INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. Lxxvii the site of the engraved bone, in different parts of the same cliff, a flint flake and some bones of animals, fractured longi- tudinally, obviously by the hand of man, for the purpose of extracting the marrow, according to the practice of all prim- itive races. There can be no doubt as to the geological char- acter of the formation from which I disinterred these inter- esting relics." It seems, however, that Mr. Calvert's conclu- sions thus far have not been generally accepted ; doubts even existing as to the artificial character of the supposed engrav- ing. The well-known Materiaux (second number, 1873) contain descriptions and drawings (by Mr. Alphonse Baux) of a col- lection of Japanese arrow-heads made of chalcedony, jasper, and flint, which are identical with those found in this coun- try. These weapons, it is stated, are quite common in the island of Jesso, where they are found in the soil after heavy rains. They are not used at present in any part of Japan. It appears, however, that they were employed by the Ainos, the primitive inhabitants of Japan, now driven into the inte- rior. Mr. Louis Lartet records the discovery in Palestine of va- rious traces of a prehistoric population, resembling in its hab- its the reindeer-hunters who once dwelt in the caves and un- der the rock-shelters of Dordogne. A station near Mount Lebanon has furnished chipped knives and scrapers of flint perfectly resembling those of the south of France. They were associated with the broken and calcined bones of ani- mals. Implements of the same character have occurred near Bethlehem, together with large disk-shaped objects of flint perfectly resembling certain paleolithic types of Europe. Dolmens have been noticed in various parts of Palestine. None of the traces just mentioned are ascribed to the Jews; but it is considered as probable that the country was inhab- ited, before the arrival of the Hebrews, by tribes who used chipped-flint implements exclusively, and by others who were in the habit of erecting, for purposes of sepulture, dolmens analogous to those of France and Alcfiers. General Faidherbe read before the Anthropological Society of Paris a paper on the raegalithic monuments of Africa. Dolmens occur at Tunis, Constantine, Algiers, and Tangier; but they are wanting all the distance between Algiers and Ixxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND Tangier. Light-haired populations with an European cast of features live in the neighborhood of the dolmens, and Gen- eral Faidherbc considers it as probable that these monuments owe their orii^in to a lio:ht-haired race comins; from the north of Europe. Mr. E. Riviere, who is about to publish a work on the cel- ebrated caves of Mentone, Italy (where a complete human skeleton, accompanied by liint implements, skulls, etc., was found in 1872), continues his researches at that place. Every day he collects no less than one hundred and fifty pieces, such as bones, flints, shells, and even human remains. Only a short time ago he discovered human bones in juxtaposition with pierced shells and stag's teeth, also perforated to serve as ornaments or amulets. Accordino- to the latest accounts, he has brought to light a second human skeleton, accom- panied by the bones of the cave -bear, cave -hyena, urus, horse, etc., together with numerous implements of flint and bone. No traces of pottery thus far have been found in these caves. The discoveries of Dr. Henry Schliemann in the plain of Troy, Asia Minor, have attracted much attention. He made in the preceding year excavations north of the village of Bu- narbashi, and to the east of the Scamander River, which re- sulted, according to his opinion, in the discovery of the site of ancient Troy. Whether or not Dr. Schliemann has been successful in pointing out the place where Homer's renowned city stood, his researches have, nevertheless, led to important results, disclosing, as it were, three different phases of civil- ization in tolerably distinct layers on the same spot. The upper stratum contained no remains of stone buildings, wood having doubtless been used in their erection. In the next were found the ruins of dwellings made of sun-burned bricks, together with stone and copper implements and pottery, of a character to impress the explorer with the belief that these relics were left by a people of the Aryan stock. The lowest layer, finally, disclosed massive masonry, consisting of large stone blocks joined with clay. Here were also found the re- mains of what Dr. Schliemann supposes to have been a tower, which was built upon the natural rock. The pottery found among these debris, which he ascribes to the Troyans, indi- cated taste, and, in general, a state of civilization far sur^^ass- INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. Ixxix ing that of the races who left their tokens in the upper layers. From certain symbolic designs in the ornamenta- tion of the pottery, Dr. Schliemann arrives at the conclusion that the Troyans were of Aryan origin like their ruder suc- cessors. While engaged in excavating during the month of July of this year, Dr. Schliemann came upon a deposit of highly in- teresting objects, namely, a flat copper article in the shape of a large waiter, probably a shield ; a copper kettle with horizontal handles ; a large copper plate, upon which a silver vase was fastened ; a copper vase ; a globular bottle of pure gold, with zigzag ornamentation; silver vases; drinking-ves- sels of gold and silver ; a great variety of silver and gold ornaments (finger and ear rings, bracelets, diadems, etc.) ; lance-heads and knives of copper (bronze?); and other inter- esting relics. These objects lay close together, as though they had been contained in a wooden chest. This valuable find is supposed by Dr. Schliemann to constitute the treasure of Priamus, and to have been left behind when the city was destroyed. Dr. Schliemann is about to publish (Brockhaus, Leipzig) a work containing a minute account of his explora- tions in the " plain of Troy." This will be accompanied with an atlas of 216 photographic plates. Two important collections of Old World ethnology have lately been added to the art treasures of America, the first of them being that obtained by General Di Cesnola, U. S. Consul at Cyprus, on the site of the Idalium and other local- ities, and embracing a great variety of objects of Phoenician, Greek, Roman, and other periods. Amid much competition on the part of foreign museums, Mr. Johnson, of New York, took the responsibility of ofiering $50,000 on behalf of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York; and this propo- sition having been accepted, the collection was brought over from London, and is now in the buildincc belonsrins; to the above-mentioned institution. The second collection is that of Egyptian antiquities made by Mr. Hay, and for a time on exhibition at the Crystal Pal- ace in London, and which was purchased by Mr. Samuel A. Way, of Boston, and now on exhibition in the building of the American Athenaeum in Boston. With these, and the Abbott cabinet of Egyptian antiquities in possession of the New York Ixxx GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND Historical Society, America possesses a series of illustrations of Egyptian art not surpassed by any European collection ; and it is to be hoped that in time all other branches of antiquity -will be equally well represented in America. The Peabody Museum in Cambridge has already a representation of the Stone Age of Europe scarcely surpassed by any museum in Europe. A second part of the great work of the Imperial Archaeo- logical Society of St. Petersburg upon the antiquities of the Scythia of Plerodotus has lately been published, and in- cludes elaborate figures and descriptions of numerous articles obtained from the mounds in the steppes of the Black Sea. The occurrence in various localities in Europe, always un- der circumstances indicating great antiquity, of certain hu- man cranium, has been recorded in the earlier volumes of the Aiimial Record ; and M. Quatrefages, in a recent memoir, considers these as representing a peculiar type, which he calls the Canstadt race, and including several w^ell-knovvn skulls^ such as the Neanderthal, Engis, Nagy Kap, and others. The peculiarity of these specimens consists in enormous frontal sinuses and other characteristic features. The interest of Biblical scholars and ethnologists has been greatly excited by the publication of the translation of an Assyrian tablet, as rendered by Mr. Henry Smith, of the Brit- ish Museum, this giving a circumstantial account of the del- uge, which, though differing somewhat in details from the Mosaic account, exhibits sufficient similitude to indicate a common origin. The tablet containing this account, as con- tained in the British Museum, is quite imperfect ; but during a recent visit to ancient Assyria, for the purpose of further exploration, Mr. Smith was so fortunate as to discover the remaining fragment, by which he is now enabled to complete the history. A contribution to the early history of man consists in the discovery of his remains in the bone breccia of Corsica, asso- ciated with the bones of Lagomys and other sub-arctic ani- mals, proving conclusively that at the time when these re- mains were embedded the climate of the counti-y Avas very different from that which prevails at present, and belonging rather to the post-glacial period, and corresponding probably to that of the reindeer period in France. INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. \xxxi A very important contribution to the question of the an- tiquity of man in Europe is furnished by the result of recent explorations in the Settle bone-cave in Yorksliire, where a fragment of bone unmistakably human was found, under cir- cumstances proving that it must have been deposited dur- ing the glacial period. Anthropological research has been prosecuted in America during the year with much zeal, and new pages are continu- ally laid bare in reference to the history of man on the Amer- ican continent. Mounds have been opened, graves emptied of their contents, and shell-heaps especially those of Ore- gon and California have been investigated with unusually rich results. Some very remarkable remains of implements and other objects have been disinterred in Washington Territory, Oregon, and California. Mr. Dall has brought from the Aleutian Islands large numbers of prehistoric ob- jects found buried in the caves of Unalashka and elsewhere. The explorations of Professor Powell in Colorado, in contin- uation of those of previous years, have furnished an exhaust- ive representation of illustrations of the habits and character- istics of the Utes, embracing dresses, ornaments, implements, utensils, weapons of war and the chase, etc. A most inter- esting discovery has been made by Professor Kerr, of North Carolina, of ancient mica mines in the western part of that state. The existence of mica in the mounds of the West has long been an interesting fact, but without any explanation of the source whence this was derived. Accordino; to Pro- fessor Kerr, the aboriginal excavations for mica are very nu- merous in North Carolina, and were made on a large scale ; and there seems to be no reasonable doubt that from them were obtained the plates of mica found among the remains of so many of the early nations of North America. The expedition of the Polaris, and that of the vessels which went in search of her, have also furnished some interestino: objects, including many remains of implements of modern or- igin ; but a more special result Avas the discovery in Polaris Bay, latitude 81 34', of Esquimau sledge runners, and oth- er articles ; as also the remains of stone houses, showing that these people lived that distance to the north, and probably still farther. ,4* Ixxxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND ZOOLOGY. The year lias been characterized by the appearance of several works of great importance that tend to revolutionize, in a degree, the science oi Zoology^ and that evidence the flow of a counter-current in the ordinary channels of zoological thought. Much of this tendency is undoubtedly due to the influence of Darwin's writings, and much to improved meth- ods of research in studying the tissues of animals, and in cut- ting and staining sections of the soft-bodied creatures, such as worms, and the eggs of the lower animals, as well as the embryos of the vertebrate animals. The influence of Mr. Darwin's work is noticeable in the en- tirely new path by which naturalists approach the study of the instinct or mental nature of animals. The key-note to th subject is that the instincts of animals are the result or sum of inherited habits ; ^. e., that the present mental or in- stinctive processes of animals are the result of a slow growth, through many generations, of what were originally quite sim- ple mental acts. More is, perhaps, being done in the way of observation and experiment than ever before, and we would refer the reader to numerous articles in Nature^ by Mr. Dar- win, Mr. Spalding, and others, on this interesting subject. In the physiology of the lower animals, the brilliant re- searches of Professor A. M. Mayer on the sense of hearing in insects will receive much attention, while the studies of M. Simon on the blind insects inhabiting European caves bears on the subject of the sense of sight. M. G. Pouchet concludes from his experiments on the influence of light on certain dip- terous larva) wanting external organs of sight, that dipter- ous larvfe generally perceive not only light, but also appre- ciate the direction whence the light comes. The anatomy of the brains of certain quadrupeds has been studied by Professor B. G. Wilder, while the physiology or topography of the diff*erent mental traits in man has received attention from Fritsch, Hitzig, Jackson, and Ferrier ; and from their researches some are led to think that we may ulti- mately be able to assign the various mental faculties to defl- nite portions of the brain. The vexed question of spontaneous generation has, since the appearance of Bastian's " Beginnings of Life," been suf- INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. Ixxxiii fered to remain at rest, only to be revived by several English writers, who dispute several alleged facts stated by Bastian, and Mr. E. Ray Lankester seems quite positive that Mr. Bas- tian is incorrect in several of his observations. In this con- nection certain observations published in the Monthly Mi- croscopical Journal have some significance. Messrs. Dallin- ger and Drysdale studied a cercomonad, or infusorial being, with an oval body, and provided with two actively moving flagella, or lash-like filaments, at one end. This was the ma- ture form ; while other forms, some differing in size and shape, and with one flagellum at each end, others amoeboid, with or without a flagellum, and still others cyst- like, and smooth and globular, occurred. All these forms were found to be phases in the life of the original cercomonad. The spo- rules discharged by these encysted forms of this infusorian were only visible with a sVth objective, and a magnifying pow- er of 2500 diameters. "The development of these granules was now watched with the greatest care. In six hours they had increased to a decidedly perceptible degree, though still far smaller than the minute and familiar Bacterium termo of Cohn ; an hour or two later they began to reassume an oval shape ; in nine hours from the first they had become rather larger than B. termo, and had become flagellate, and begun to move freely ; the bodies became vacuolate, and in some- thing less than twelve hours the normal parent form was as- sumed. This history was traced carefully and repeatedly, and with unvarying results. The efflects of heat and desicca- tion were also tried ; and it was found that, although drying slowly upon a glass slide and exposure to a dry heat of 121 C. entirely destroyed all the adult forms, yet, after moisten- ing again with distilled water, and watching the field for some hours, growing points were in some instances discovered ex- actly resembling an early stage of the developing sporules, which points matured into the flagellate state. Further ex- periments demonstrated that a heat, without dryness, of 66 C. destroys all the adult forms, while young monads appear and develop in an infusion Avhich has been heated to 127 C, suggesting that the sporales are uninjured by a tempera- ture which is destructive to the adult." Dr. Ward, in review- inn- this article in the American Naturalist, observes "that after this history whose importance, if verified by subse- Ixxxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND quent observation, can scarcely be overestimated a history of a monad multiplying by subdivision, reproducing by con- jugation (a true sexual reproduction of au extremely simple type), and actually seen to develop from sporules invisible under the powers usually employed in such investigations, and indestructible by heat which is fatal to the adult forms, it seems almost a waste of time to read of experiments with boiled infusions in sealed flasks, and we are rather inclined to wait patiently until Powell and Lealand or Tolles, or some one else, shall give us a lens capable of reading the life-his- tory, whatever it may be, of Bacteria and Vitriones." An excellent paper has appeared in the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science on that other much-agitated subject, Protoplasm^ entitled " Cell Theories," by Dr. Cleland. It is evident, from liis review of the works of Strieker, Beale, and Bennett, that "the protoplasmic element has assumed an enor- mous importance, casting the nucleus into the shade, while the reign of cell-walls has come to an end altogether." In other words, it is not the cell, but the "nitrogenous substance of an albuminoid character" wliich is of importance. But yet to speak of life as a property of protoplasm, as Huxley does, is in his opinion untrue. This substance is variable in appearance and behavior, as is well illustrated by Heiden- hain's observations on the differences in both salivary and jzastric secretinc: corpuscles in states of activity and rest. "How, then," asks Dr. Cleland, "shall we say that in its dif- ferent conditions tlie material which constitutes tlie mass of such corpuscles is one and the same chemical substance ? "We shall, indeed, take a very imperfect view of the living units to which an unhappy chance has given the unfortunate name of cells, if we say that because neither cell-wall nor nucleus is an essential element, therefore life is a property of proto- plasm." That it is impossible for naturalists to tell the difference between the lowest animals and the lowest plants seems agreed upon. Haeckel has even, as others before him had done, referred such forms to a distinct kingdom in nature. The last essential difference thou2:ht to exist between animals and plants of the lowest order was, perhaps, removed by Profess- or Draper, who shows that plants, as well as animals, exljale CJirbonic acid. Ilis article was published in 1872. During INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. Ixxxv the past year an interesting series of articles by Claude Ber- nard have appeared in Mevue des Cows Sclentifique^ on the phenomena of life common to animals and vegetables. He contends that " a fundamental conception dominates general physiology that of the unity of nutrition in all living be- inscs." M. Felix Plateau continues his interesting physico-chemi- cal investigations upon the aquatic articulates, particularly the insects. Having previously experimented on the causes of the death of the fresh-water Articulata in sea-water, and of the marine Articulata in fresh water, in the second part of his investigations he takes up three other interesting questions : First, he details certain experiments on the time during Avhich the aquatic Articulata can remain in the water with- out coming to the surface to breathe. He finds that terres- trial Coleoptera (beetles) resist complete submersion during a very long time, i. e., for three to four days. It seems that swimming aquatic Coleoptera and Hemiptera, far from pre- senting a greater resistance to asphyxia by submersion, are no better endowed in this respect than terrestrial insects, and even perish in most cases much more rapidly. The cause of this unexpected inferiority of the aquatic insects seems to consist exclusively in their greater activity in the water, and, consequently, in a more rapid expenditure of oxygen. Sec- ondly, he finds that aquatic Articulata can exist for an in- definite period in water, kept by means of melting ice at a temperature of 32 Fahr. But if the same insects are placed in -ice at 32, they die within less than half an hour. The primary cause of rapid death when Articulata are fixed in ice seems to be the absolute privation of movement, and the consequent absorption of the corporeal heat, without any -possible restitution. Thirdly, he has endeavored to ascertain the highest temperature which our fresh-water insects, Arach- nida and Crustacea, can endure in other words, what is the temperature of the hottest water in which they can live. He finds that it is between 92 and 115 Fahr. These temperatures, he remarks, correspond with those of a cer- tain number of known thermal springs, in the waters of which we may meet with articulate animals, wherever the salts or gases in solution have no injurious action upon them. Finally, he finds that the highest temperature that aquatic Ixxxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND animals, whetlicr vertebrate, articulate, or molluscous, are able to support, probably does not exceed 115 Fahr. Of kindred interest are the results of the studies of Pro- fessor Moebius on the lower animals of the Baltic. By far the greater number of the Invertebrata of the Baltic are also inhabitants of the North Atlantic Ocean. Of many of them we know that they are spread into the icy Polar Sea, and as far as the African coast. With recrard to the shell-bearins: mollusca, this has been demonstrated in detail in the work entitled " Fauna of the Bay of Kiel." This wide distribution of the Baltic animals, their ability to live in warm, temper- ate, and cold seas, becomes intelligible when we have made ourselves acquainted with the temperature which they have to endure in the Baltic. In the physico-chemical section of this report, it is shown by a table (xxxii.), founded upon three years' observation by Dr. H. A. Meyer, that the diiferences of temperature in the superficial layer of the waters of the bay rose to 14.9-20 (=:26.8-36 Fahr.), attained 13.3- 17.3 (=23.9-31.14 Fahr.) at five fathoms, and even at a depth of 16 fathoms still amounted to 9.2-12.2 (i=:16.5G -21.96 Fahr.). In all the strata of the water, even in the deepest, at the cold season, the animals of the Baltic have to endure a temperature which sinks to the freezing-point of salt water, therefore below zero (=32 Fahr.). In summer and autumn, on the contrary, they are exposed to a pretty liigh temperature. The diflferent temperatures which the in- dividuals of a species experience in the course of a year in the Baltic are undergone at the same time by other individu- als of the same species ^vhich live in the Mediterranean, the Xorth Sea, and the North Polar Sea. The Baltic contains only a selection of such Atlantic and polar animals as are capable of supporting great differences of temperature. For this reason they may be called eurythermal animals, in con- tradistinction to those animals which thrive only in -warm or cold and tolerably constant temperatures, such as the trop- ical and exclusively arctic marine animals, both of "which may on this account be denominated stenothermal animals. All the marine animals of the Baltic have, further, the fac- ulty of living in sea-water containing a variable amount of salt ; those Baltic animals which also occur in the Mediterra- nean can bear a larger amount of salt than the Atlantic INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. Ixxxvii Ocean contains. This faculty of the Baltic animals is by no means indicated by calling them brackish-water animals ; on the contrary, this expression carries our thoughts away from one of their most remarkable peculiarities ; for animals which can live not only in slightly, but also in strongly salt water, are not brackish-water, but euryhallne animals. A very perfectly euryhaline animal is Hydrobia uIvcb. This shell becomes developed in the slightly salt water near Goth- land to the same size as in more than normally salt lakes on the shore of the iSTorth Sea. He then concludes that because the Baltic animals are eurythermal and euryhaline, they are therefore capable of living both at small and great depths, and of maintaining their ground throughout long geological periods. An interesting j^hysiological fact has been discovered by Professor Schneider, who finds that in the young or ammo- coetes stage of the Lamprey eel, the thyroid gland performs its functions during a long period of life, and exists in a highly developed form. This is a remarkable fact, and is the only case known of the gland's performing its function after the young vertebrate has passed beyond its embryonic life. But what this function is, Schneider does not state. It is well known that the thyroid gland is an embryonic organ, proba- bly, like the suprarenal capsule, of use to the embryo, but, with the exception of the larval Petromyzon, or Lamprey, of no use to the vertebrate animal after it is born. The singular mode of respiration in certain lizards, the Psammodromis, has engaged the attention of M. J. JuUien. He states that these animals do not swallow the air like the Batrachians (toads and frogs), but when they respire, certain muscular bundles traversing the lungs contract (as the heart itself would do), the air is expelled, and after the contraction re-enters the lungs by virtue of the elasticity of the thorax, aided no doubt by the elevator muscles of the ribs. When, he says, we observe one of these lizards breathing, the long- est respiratory period is that of expiration, followed imme- diately by a sudden inspiration. When a mammal respires, the contrary is the case a long inspiration precedes a short- er exj^iration. The respiration of these lizards therefore, in his view, differs profoundly, both from an anatomical and a physiological point of view, from that of Mammalia and Ixxxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND Birds. It belongs to an intermediate type, which must take its place below that of the two classes just mentioned, and above that of the Batrachians. Some observations on the mode of walking of the Arma- dillos have been made by Mr. Bartlett, of the London Zo- ological Gardens. He observes that two species of Chceto- 2)hractus walk on the tips of their toes, like species of Xenu- riis, while certain other forms, as Eiqyhractics, a member of the same family, and three species of another family, the TatusiadcB^ walk on the palms of the forefeet, with the claws spread out, and the tips elevated from the soil. Of the physiological laws governing the size of the indi- vidual, we know comparatively little. The matter may be approached by a study of the changes in size and weight of insects while passing tlirough their m.etamorj^hoses, for virt- ually the larva of an insect is a difierent animal from the pupa or chrysalis, differing anatomically and in its habits ; so with the imago or adult, as compared with the chrysalis. The experiments of the distinguished English anatomist and physiologist, Newport, had shown that in the pupal state res- piration still goes on, though to a diminished extent, so that the carbonic acid and water excreted by the pupa, being un- compensated by food, must be a dead loss of matter to the insect. As preliminary to the study of this subject, Mr. Meldola has published in the Annals and Magazine of Nat- ural History an article in which he confirms Newport's state- ment that there is a loss of substance in the pupal state. He also finds that this loss is different in amount in individuals of the same species exposed to the same temperature, and that it is less in amount than that occurrina: in the same species in the perfect state or in a dead pupa by desiccation the comparisons extending in all cases over equal periods of time. They prove also, he adds, what is far more important to our present inquiry, that the variation in loss is sufficient in amount to lead us to expect the size, or at least the specific gravity, of the imago to be sensibly influenced by it. Of kindred interest are certain inquiries which occasionally come up as to the mode of production of sex. It is evident that the origin of sex, as that of species, is in some way de- pendent on physical laws. Mrs. Treat and Mr. Riley dis- cuss the subject in the American Naturalist. The former INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. Ixxxix thinks that sex is determined by differences in the amount of food, and states her belief that by starving caterpillars, males are the result. The editors of the same journal, and also Mr. Riley, state the well-known fact that the sex of in- sects is known to be determined when or very soon after the insect leaves the egg, and that the sexes are probably deter- mined at the time of conception. The subject of embryology, always of great interest to the philosophical naturalist, has acquired a new value in the light of the theory of descent. The essential point of in- quiry now engaging the attention of embryologists, and for which we are especially indebted to the Kussians and Ger- mans, is as to the primary number of germinal layers of cells in the embryo, and whether the germs of all animals are alike at first. The extreme difficulty of these studies may be imagined. By making transverse sections of eggs hard- ened by alcohol and various chemical substances, and by the use of different chemical reagents, we have, however, been able to advance in a wonderful degree the study of the earliest changes in the germ of the articulates, moUusca, and especially the vertebrates, while the minute eggs and em- bryos of the lower animals afford by their transparency op- tical sections. Of almost startlino; interest are the results of Miklucho Macleay and Haeckel's studies on the embryology of the sponges. They show that the germs resemble the young of certain radiates, and are made up of two layers of cells. This, while proving that the sponges are animals com- parable in structure with certain low radiate animals, such as the hydra (they even regard them as homologous in struct- ure with the radiates), shows that the view of Carter, Lie- berkiihn, and James Clark, that they are compound infusoria, is no longer tenable. In fact, Haeckel insists that the sponges are not Protozoa. But it also seems that the " gastrula," or free swimming germ of the sponge, is homologous Avith the " planula," or free swimming germ of the acalcphs. Haeckel, from the closeness of the homoloo-ies which he claims to exist between the adult sponges and acalephs, places them together in the zoophytes. He claims that the famous "germ-layer" theory which Huxley, in 1849, and afterward the distinguish- ed Russian embryologist, Kowalevsky, applied to the inver- tebrates as well as vertebrates, also applies to the sponges. xc GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND Thus the germs of all animals (the amoeba and infusoria ex- cepted) are alike, consisting of a sac composed of two layers of cells. The theory he derives from this fact is stated under the head of Zoology in this Record, Among the paj)ers of interest which have appeared during the year on the embryology of the lower animals, is an article by E. Kay Lankester in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History^ being zoological observations made at Dohrn's Zoo- logical Station at Naples. In this paper he shows that certain mollusks originate the same as in the worms and vertebrates, i. e., from two primitive layers of cells; and that, as shown by Kowalevsky in other mollusks, there is an invagination or in- pushing of these cells at one pole, just as in Amphioxus, the lowest vertebrate. He also as^rees that the whole animal se- ries above the Protozoa agree in possessing these two primi- tive layers at one time of their development. The embryology of the spiders is discussed at length, with many drawings in illustration, by M. Balbiani in ihQAiinales des Sciences Natiirelles. An important paper on the embryology of the bony fishes, from a study of the brook trout, is published by Dr. Oellacher in Siebold & Kolliker's Journal of Scientific Zoology^ while there are several short but important papers by F. M. Bal- four, in the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, on the development of the layers of the blastoderm of the hen's Qg^ an important contribution to the germ-layer theory ; also an illustrated paper by the same author on tlie disap- pearance of the primitive groove in the embryo chick, and a very interesting illustrated paper on the develoj^ment of the blood-vessels in the chick. Before turning to what has been done in systematic zo- ology during the year, we may briefly notice the establish- ment of biological institutions, which either aid zoologists in developing our knowledge of structural and systematic zoology, and of the geographical distribution of animals, or which combine original research with educational advantages of a hioh order. Such are the Zooloojical Station founded at Naples by Dr. Anton Dohrn, the Anderson School of Natural History at Penikese Island, in Buzzard's Bay, and the United States Fish Commission, which has its head-quarters at dif- ferent points along the coast of the Northern Atlantic States. INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. xci The Zoological Station at Naples is designed for advanced students of different countries. They are provided with ta- bles, and have access to the immense material dredged in the Bay of Xaples, so rich in marine life. The animals are pre- served alive in large aquaria, water flowing through them in pipes leading from the sea. The facilities thus afforded are very great, while the effect of having scientists of various nationalities working side by side will have an important effect in harmonizing their results. No lectures are given, and the institution is not designed to be directly educational. The idea of tlie Anderson School of Natural History, so named from Mr. John Anderson, the founder, was undoubt- edly suggested by the Naples Zoological Station. The sug- gestion was first made by Professor N. S. Shaler, who planned out a school for sea-side instruction, and had obtained the use of a building at Nantucket. Obliged, however, to go to Europe for his health. Professor Agassiz, then just returned from the Hassler expedition, went on with the plan, which was changed through the instrumentality of Mr. Anderson. The school became the educational branch of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge. Laboratories were erected, fifty students, mostly college professors and normal- school teachers, accommodated, who were taught to observe for themselves. The nature of the course of instruction was such as was introduced by the late Professor Agassiz into this country, le.,the study of zoology from the specimens, and not from books. They thus learned the art of observing for themselves, gaining an insight into the modes and diffi- culties of research, and obtaining some idea of the vast extent of the field of biology. Besides the laboratory instruction, and frequent dredging excursions in the yacht Sprite^ lect- ures on surface geology, glacial phenomena, the embryology and structure of vertebrates and articulates, physiology, physical geography, on the microscope and its construction, with practical lessons in its use, and other subjects, were given by Professors Agassiz, Guyot, Wilder, Brewer, Pack- ard, and others. It is stated that Mr, Alexander Agassiz succeeds his father as director of the school. The United States Fish Commissioner, Professor Baird, during the past summer had his head-quarters at Peak's Island, in Portland harbor. He was assisted by Professor xcii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND Yerrill, of Yale College, Dr. A. S. Packard, of Salem, and other specialists. Immense collections of animals were dredged, many new to science, and much practical informa- tion relating to the food of fishes obtained, aside from the more immediate objects of tlie Commission. Many natu- ralists, mostly professors of colleges, availed themselves of the great advantages presented by this school of science, as it practically is, and the effect of the Commission upon the educational interests of the country will be widely felt. Coming now to the lowest organisms, we w^ould advert to a memoir laid before the Berlin Academ}^, in which the ven- erable Ehrenberg gives the results of his microscopical studies since 1836. He intimates that the distribution of warm and cold currents is now beginning to be understood, while the dispersion and relative abundance of deep-sea life, and the formation of silicious and calcareous ooze and muds, need much more study. "VVe know not, he says, what forms of being, minute or gigantic, exist throughout the abyssal depths. The abundant occurrence oi Feridinia in the flints of the deep-sea chalk, as well as the living luminous animals on the ocean's surface, and even at the deep bottom oflfFlorida, point to a possibly periodic and even permanent strong light in those depths, enabling the creatures of the great deep to have the use of their visual organs. Our knowledge of the Sponges lias been greatly advanced by the great work of Haeckel on the Calcareous Sponges, in three octavo volumes, and also by the papers of Carter, Sars, Wyville Thomson of the Challenger^ and others. Several new and interesting forms have been obtained by the United States Fish Commission in deep water off the coast of Maine, among them the glass-sponge, or Ilyalonema longissimiim of Sars, heretofore found only in deep water off Norway. It is well known that certain sponges by boring into shells absorb their substance, and cause them to rapidly disinte- grate, until the shell is destroyed. Such is, for example, Cliona celata of the Eno-lish coast, which attacks the ovster shell, and, after having absorbed the whole valve, grows into a shapeless mass. Another sponge, Halichondria suherea, Johnst., is a species which attacks univalve shells, but often retains more or less of the outward form of the shell, and almost always that of the internal cavity ; for a hermit crab INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. xciii generally iuhabits the latter, and so prevents the sponge from encroachino' in this direction. Mr. H. J. Carter finds {A?i7ials aiid 3Iag. of N^at. Hist., Jan.) that the flexible polyp, ffydr actinia echinata, has the power of transforming the calcareous shell on which it may be growing into its own horn-like frame. Among tlie sponges' thus far obtained by the British ex- ploring vessel Challenger, under Professor Wyville Thomson, is a Venus' Flower-basket, or Euplectella, from off the coast of Portugal, which it is impossible to distinguish from the Euplectella aspergilluin of the Philippines. A valuable contribution to the subject of the develop- ment of the coral polyp has been published by M.Lacaze-Du- thiers in his new Archives de Zoologie experimentcde. He confirms the statements of Dana that though polyps are true radiates, still they have something of the antero-posterior (or head-and-tail) polarity, Avith also the right and left, which is eminently characteristic of the animal type. Still later he has communicated to the French Academy further researches on the coral polyps. He finds that the primary calcareous particles are deposited in the internal layers of the walls of the body, /. e., in the endoderm. He studied it on the coast of Algeria; and in localities where, as he writes. Professor Car- penter found nothing, he has discovered several new generic types of corals. It appears that the late Professor Sars, from a posthumous work on the animals of Norway, edited by his son, had de- tected on the coast of N'orway a species of the coral Mopsea, which he calls M. horecdis. Before this the genus was sup- posed to be exclusively tropical, none having been found be- fore north of the Mediterranean Sea and Florida. Another coral, which occurs in the arctic fauna of the Gulf of Maine, is the Deltocyathus Agassizii, which was found about twenty miles east of Cape Cod by the United States Fish Commission. It has heretofore been known to exist only in deep water off Florida. A Fungia-like coral, named by Sars Fangiacythus fragilis,\\Vi'& been found at great depths ofi"the coast of Nor- way. It belongs to the free cup corals, of which there are now few living representatives, and those confined to the tropical seas. Amono; the discoveries of the United States Fish Commis- xciv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND a'lon is that of a ssmd-stixv, A7nphiura Otteri of Ljiingmann, which occurred off Cape Cod in company with the Delto- cyathus. It has heretofore only been obtained in 550 fathoms off the coast of Portugal by the Swedish naturalists on the corvette Josephine. The sea-urchins, or Echini^ have been monographed by Mr. Alexander Agassiz in a splendidly printed and illustrated work, of which two volumes have appeared during the year. The work, which will be a classic in zoology, already contains over fifty plates, some of them heliotypes and Woodbury types. As the author visited all the European museums, and consult- ed the types in them, while his work is based on the unrivaled collections in the Museum of Comparative Zoology, the work must for a Ions: time remain the standard authority on this subject. M. A. F. Marion publishes a note on the hybrids which he obtained by artificial impregnation between two sea-urchins, Sphmrechiniis brevisjmiosas and Toxop)neustes li- vidus. He only succeeded in rearing the Pluteus form of larva, as it is impossible to carry these delicate organisms further along in their development. The literature of the 3Iollusca has been extended by the usual number of special papers on shell-fish, though we do not recall any of special value relative to their development, except some brief notes by E.Ray Lankester, and one or two others. Professor Morse, in his paper on the "Systematic Po- sition of Brachiopods," in a note reviews what has been said regarding the affinities of Dentalium^ the tooth shell, and suggests that they bear some relations to the Tetrabranchiate Cephalopods " in the numerous and retractile tentacles, the dorsal turn of the shell, and the strict identity between a peculiar bilateral cartilaginous body which occurs in the head oi Dentalium as well as in the head oi Nautilus pompi- llus.^'' A large beak of a Cephalopod, indicating that the ani- mal must have been between twenty and thirty feet long, and found in the ISTorth Atlantic, is figured and noticed by Dr. Packard in the American Naturalist. This colossal cuttle- fish is referred by Steenstrup to Architeuthis dux. Mr. W. II. Dall contributes a note to the same journal on colos- sal Octopi in the Pacific. But the actual occurrence of an immense squid on the coast of Newfoundland has been stated by Mr. Alexander Murray, of the Canadian Geological INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. xcv Survey. Some fishermen cut off the arm of a squid, and afterward found the animal dead on the shore. The total length of the body is seven feet, and its circumference five. Around the head are eight large arms, each six or seven feet in length, the largest nine inches in circumference. Besides these were two longer tentacles, each twenty -four feet in length. Mr. Murray, in a letter to the late Professor Agassiz, published in the America?i Naturalist^ states that individuals measured by fishermen on the coast of Labrador measured in one case eighty, and in another ninety feet in length. Great activity has been manifested by naturalists in fur- thering our knowledge of the structure and relationship of the worms, among which are now included by some natural- ists the Folyzoa as w^ell as Brachiopoda. Among the former, a most remarkable form has been described by Professor M. Sars under the name o? Uhahdopleiira mirahilis. Though the genus was first described by the English naturalist Allman, Sars and his son have, from a study of the living animal, im- proved greatly Allman's first description. It is a small creep- ing "moss-animal," which at intervals sends up tubes in winch the individuals live. These individuals differ in nearly all their essential points from the ordinary Polyzoa, so much so that they can with difficulty be referred to the class of Poly- zoa. First, he says, they have no "endocyst," or mantle, w^hich all other Polyzoa have. Having no mantle, wdth no muscles for the retraction of the animal within its tube, it is in this w^ay allied to the Hydroid polyp. Retraction is effect- ed by a contractile cord, at the end of which the animal is suspended. It is thus, he concludes, intermediate between the Hydrozoa and Polyzoa, or forms a transition from one to the other. The RhahdopUura is, he continues, as quoted by his son, G. O. Sars, undoubtedly, like many other animals which at present inhabit the greater depths of the sea, "a very old form,, which in its organization has still retained several features from the time w^hen the animal type that w^e call Polyzoa first developed itself from a low^er type." Thus, he says, and it seems that Sars w^as an evolutionist, unlike many of his fellow Scandinavian zoologists, the questions re- garding the position of this animal can only be " properly answered through the medium of the Darwinian theory." In his view, the Polyzoa in the earliest primordial times (for ^ xcvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND fossil remains of them are found in the lowest Silurian forma- tions) were developed from the Hydroid polyps by transmuta- tion. " We have in the Rhahdopleura manifestly such a form of Polyzoa in course of development out of a form of Hydro- zoa." Finally he calls attention to the interesting fact that the crown of tentacles of this animal is like that of most fresh-water Polyzoa, and in this respect is higher than the marine forms. " It is, however, possible," he says, " that the first is pi'operly the original form, from which the latter has subsequently arisen." The fresh waters appear, as Haeckel lately has remarked, to contain the direct descendants of some of the eldest animal forms which, by reason of the less compli- cated accidents of the fresh waters, have often in the "struQ-- gle for life" only slightly altered their original more simple structure ; as, for instance, among the Coelenterates, the Hy- dra; among the Rhizoj^ods, the Actinophrys^ Grotnia., and the shell-less Hadiolaria lately discovered by Focke ; among the fish, the Ganoida^ etc. The dee23-sea Polyzoa dredged by Pourtales ofi" Florida have been described by Professor Smitt in the Swedish Transactions. Turning now to Professor Morse's work on the "Systemat- ic Position of the Brachiopods," we meet with the iconoclas- tic statement that " the Brachiopoda are true worms, with possibly some affinities to the Crustacea, and that they have no relations to the Mollusca, save what many other worms may possess in common wdth them." He not only regards them as worms, but as belonging to the highest division of them, the Chsetopods, represented by the marine forms, such as JVereis, Amphitrite, Sabella, and less perfectly by the com- mon earthworm. He regards the Brachiopods as a synthetic or comprehensive type, saying that " w^hile we do not find them in all their characters resembling any one grouj:* of worms, I have endeavored to show that all their features, to a greater or less degree, are shared by one or the other of the various groups of the Vermes, with one or two features shared by the Arthropods." In his belief the ancient Chteto- pod worms culminated in two parallel lines, on the one hand in the Brachiopods, and on the other in the fixed and liighly cephalized Chaetopods. The divergence of the Brachiopods having been attained in more ancient times, a few degraded features are yet retained, whose relationships we find in the INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. xcvii lower Vermes ; while from their later divergence the fixed and cephalized Annelides are more closely allied to the pres- ent free Chaetopods. The facts, whatever some may think of the author's conclusions, are mostly new, and presented by the author with great skill and interest, while many natural- ists will believe that Professor Morse has demonstrated the worm- like nature of these animals. A second memoir, in quarto, on the embryology of our common Brachiopod, the Terebratulina^\^2L^ subsequently appeared in the "Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History," which goes to con- firm the worm origin of these animals. Brief papers relating to the classification of the Brachiopod s have been published by Professors King and Gill, and Mr. Dall. Further contributions to the minute anatomy of the Tcenice, or tape-w^orms, have been made by Dr. Nitsche, and appear in Siebold & KoUiker's celebrated journal, while a resume of Dr. Krabbe's work on the tape-worms of birds appears in Gervais' 7bi'^a7 cle Zoologie. It seems by his account that more than half of the known species of these Cestoid worms inhabit birds; the number of known species of Cestoids amounting to over 300. The tape-worms are naturally more abundant in the aquatic birds, which prey on fish, than the land birds, while they are less abundant in the birds of prey and the graminivorous birds, which is the more remarkable be- cause they especially favor the carnivorous mammals. While Ktichenmeister has found that the Cysticercus of the slug (Zfimax) transforms into the Tmnia of the common European sandpiper. Dr. Krabbe has found that the young of the Tmnia of the heron is an animal found in the tench, and described under a different name by Nordmann. Dr. Cauvet contrib- utes a notice of the Tmnia (T. medio canellata) so abundant in the French army in Algeria. Further observations have been made on the sin2:ular met- araorphoses and habits of the Trematode worms. O. von Linstow decides that there must be two modes of transport of the young Distomum, or Cercaria-form, into the bodies of fishes. In the 'first case the fish eats a snail {Paludina) con- taining encysted Cercarim; the Cercarim are set free by the digestion of the cysts, and attain their sexual state in the in- testine of the fish. In the second case the fish {Acerina cer- nua) eats a molhisk containing free Cercarim^ or else these 5' xcviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND larvae pass directly into the fish. They pierce the intestine, and encyst themselves on the outside of the wall of that organ. During their course through the intestine they in- crease in size, because they find suitable nourishment there. Further remarks on this subject may be found in the transla- tion of the article in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History. Coming to the higher Avorms, we have the beautiful and elaborate work of the late Professor Claparede, which has been noticed in its place farther on in the Record. The most important works of the year on Crustacea are those of Alphonse Milne-Edwards and Professor Owen, on the anatomy of the king-crab, and by Professor S. I. Smith on the metamorphosis of the American lobster. The blind Crustacea have been described by A. S. Packard, Jr., from caves in Indiana, The Ghalleriger party have dredged from the depths of the Atlantic several interesting Decapod Crustacea, especially those allied to Astacus, and among the lower Crustacea a gigantic Amphipod allied to the pe- lagic forms Ilyperia and Phronirna. The eyes of this an- imal are very remarkable, extending as two enormous fa- ceted lobes on all the anterior part of the body, like the eyes oi^glina among the Trilobites. The Cyami, or whale- lice, have been revised by Dr. Liitken, and new species de- scribed by him and Mr. Dall. The naked barnacles, or Wii- zocephala., have been studied by M. Girard from a develop- mental and anatomical point of view. M. Hesse has con- tinued his accounts of the Copepods and other Crustacea from the coast of France, and Mr. Brady his notices of En- glish Entomostraca. The literature of Entomology^ always so extensive com- pared with that of other departments of natural history, shows that special students have been as busy as ever, while several papers of much general interest have appeared dur- ing the year. Numerous descriptive papers from the hands of Le Conte, Scudder, Grote, Thomas, Hagen, Henry Edwards, Cresson, Riley, Packard, and others, refer to Anierican forms ; while notes and papers relative to the habits of insects may be found in the Canadian Entomologist^ and in the state en- tomological reports of Riley, Le Baron, and Packard, for the states of Missouri, Illinois, and Massachusetts respectively ; INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. xcix and the reports of Mr. T. Glover in the monthly agricultural reports. The largest general work that has appeared is a quarto volume on the Grasshoppers {Acrydii)^ by Rev. Cyrus Thomas, forming a part of the volume on Zoology of Hay- den's " Geological Survey of the Territories." The first work on insects printed in California is a credit to California sci- ence. It is a serial work on California Moths, by Mr. Stretch, illustrated by plates executed in San Francisco. Many new Coleoptera and systematic notices of different families have been published by Drs. Le Conte and Home, and Mr. Crotch. The Mexican Ichneumons have been described by Mr. Cres- son, and new moths described by Messrs. Grote and Packard. A work of great practical use, especially to those situated away from scientific libraries, is an "Annual Record of Progress in Entomology in America," published by the Peabody Acad- emy of Science, and sustained by the leading entomologists of the United States. It contains all the references to pa- pers and notes relating in any Avay to the insects of this country. Important works published in Europe on the in- sects of North America are Loew's description of our Dip- tera, and Zeller's work on our moths, particularly those found in Texas. Mr. Scudder has published an elaborate paper on the fossil Myriopods of Nova Scotia discovered by Dr. Dawson. The Smithsonian Institution has published a valu- able pamphlet of instructions for collecting insects, prepared by Dr. A. S. Packard. As regards the Arachnida (mites and spiders), several pa- pers have appeared on the mites. M. Megnin discovers that a species of Hypopus is but an immature stage of the genus Tyroglyphus^ of which the sugar and cheese mites are famil- iar examples. Among the eleven species of Hypopus de- scribed by Dufour, he recognizes six, which he does not doubt are the early stages of different mites. An important paper on cave-bearing spiders and their allies has appeared from the pen of M. Simon, and a fellow-countryman of his has de- scribed a number of new cave beetles from Southern Europe. No important paper on the embryology of the higher in- sects has appeared during the year. A notice of a so-called "hypermetamorphosis" in a common May-fly of France {Pa- lingenia virgo) has been contributed by M. Joly. He has as- certained that its larva, when just hatched, has no visible C GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND nervous system, no circulatory apparatus, and no organs of respiration. In this and other respects he confirms the state- ment of Lubbock, who studied similar stages of Chloeon^ though in a more thorough and philosophical spirit than Joly. Some- new observations of Dr. Bertkau on the respiratory organs of the spiders confirm Leuckart's statement that the different aerial organs coexist in these animals, one set of or- gans being lung-like, formed by the modification of tracheae, while the true tracheae also supply the blood with air. He establishes the fact that the spiders {Araneina) have four stigmata, of which the two anterior are situated at the ante- rior part of the abdomen. Tlie two others are placed either immediately behind these or farther back, at the extremity of the abdomen. In this latter case they unite to form a fis- sure in the median line. The first pair of stigmata always leads to " lungs ;" the second to " lungs" (in Mygale)^ or, more frequently, to tracheae. When the second pair of stigmata is anterior, the tracheae to which they correspond always jDre- sent two principal trunks one directed forward, furnishing trachean tubes to the cephalo-thorax {Dy sclera and Segestria)^ while the other passes backw^ard and supplies the abdomen. When the second pair of stigmata is situated at the extrem- ity of the abdomen, and the two trunks must necessarily go forward, it is the external one which corresponds to the jdos- terior trunk of Dysdera and Segestria. Another contribution to the subject of phosphorescence in animals is afforded by the studies of Robin and Laboulbene on the phosphorescent organs of the Cucuyo beetle, or fire- fly of Cuba. They examined males alone. It is well known that tw^o luminous eye-like spots occur on the prothorax, and a third on the under side between the thorax and abdomen. Under the transparent spots on the thorax is a mass of fat in connection with tracheae and fine nerves, and the same kind of phosphorescent organ, as the fatty body permeated with nerves and tracheae may be called, was found in the base of the abdomen. On removing these organs from the body of the living insect, they shone brilliantly for some minutes. The authors confirm the statements of Brown and Linnaeus that the insect produces its light at will; and the former ask whether the voluntary freeing of the matter pro- duced relatively to the rest of the substance of the cells'con- INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. ci sists in an intercellular oozing out of the exudation, or wheth- er it takes place in the cells themselves ? They can say noth- ing precise on this point ; but the principle which renders lu- minous for several minutes the substance of broken cells acts like noctilucine^ a phosphorescent coagulable azotized {azote) principle obtained by Phipson in 1871 from the luminous mucus of certain Scolopendrce, fishes, etc. The Vertebrate animals of our country have been noticed in various papers by Messrs. Leidy, Marsh, Cope, Gill, Put- nam, Coues, Allen, Baird, Ridgway, Merriam, and others; while the fossil forms have been described by Leidy and Cope in extensive and fully illustrated works published by Hay- den's Survey of the Territories. The fossils of Europe and other countries have been studied by a number of naturalists, including Professor Owen, A.Milne-Edwards, Gervais, Capel- lini, and others. Foremost among the important discoveries is that of a type of a new sub-class of birds, having teeth, the Odontornithes of Marsh. A large number of remarkable forms, some servina: as intermediate links between orders and sub-orders of vertebrates, have been discovered by Messrs. Marsh and Cope in the Rocky Mountain tertiary and creta- ceous rocks. These authors have published important pa- pers on the gigantic mammals called JEohasileus^ etc. The splendid monograph of Professor Leidy on the extinct ver- tebrate fauna of the West is one of the products of Hayden's Survey of the Territories. The same author has also written on the extinct mammals of California, on fossil vertebrates from the miocene rocks of Virginia, and fossil fishes from Wyoming Territory. Professor Marsh has during the past season made very extensive private collections of vertebrate fossils in the far West. Among a large number of new mam- mals obtained by Mr. Cope in the Hayden explorations in the "bad lands" of Colorado are a series of horned species related to the rhinoceros, but possessing some features resem- bling the elephant. They stood high on the legs and had short feet, but possessed osseous horns in pairs on different parts of the head. One of the largest species (Miohasileus 02yhryas) had a huge horn over each eye, while another had one on each side of the nose, and more than a foot in length, resembling those on the back part of the head of the ox, etc. A third one, of larger size than the last, had rudimental horns cii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND on the nose. Still another was about as large as the elephant. Its cheek-bones were enormously expanded, and its horns were flat. A fifth had triangular horns, turned outward. The four last species have been placed in the new genus Syinho- rodon. Among a number of remains of fossil vertebrates from the phosphate beds of the French eocene formation are those of a Lemurian monkey, called by the discoverer, M. Delfortrie, Palmolemur. He also thinks that these low mon- keys were characteristic animals of the Paris basin. M./Ger- vais thinks that this French Lemur is allied rather to the living forms of Indo- Africa, or Galago^ than the forms found in Madag^ascar. The Fishes have engaged the attention of Dr. Gtinther, Mr. Putnam, and others. A new ganoid has been discovered in Russia, allied to an American form. Mr. Putnam has pub- lished a paper on the species of Liparis^ and of 3Iyxine and JBclellostoma^ and found that the species of Myxine have a great geographical range. The Amphioxus has been studied afresh by Dr. Stieda, of Dorpat. This animal, the lowest ver- tebrate, is cosmopolitan in its distribution. He finds that the male and female Lancelet can not be externally distin- guished from each other, but a microscopical examination set- tles the question at once, and Owen's suggestion that this animal may prove to be the larva of some larger unknown fish is rendered impossible. That, however, a fish called Lep- tocephalus, which presents many signs of immaturity, such as a very imperfect skeleton, the vertebral column being repre- sented only by a dorsal cord and some membranous parts, and other characters of such a nature as to lead Kolliker to regard it as the type of a separate order that this is the young of some well-known higher fishes has for some time been supposed by ichthyologists. Indeed, Professor Gill has for a long time seen in it a very young Congei\ M. Da- reste following him in this view. Both this and the Le23to- cephalus have a swimming-bladder, in relation with some red bodies, and in other respects the Leptocephalus seems the young of the Conger-eel. They also think that the other so-called species of Leptocephalus are immature forms. An important illustrated memoir on the scales, and a short pa- per on the structure and development of the fins of the bony fishes, have been published by M. Baudelot, in Lacaze- I INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. ciii Duthiers' Archives (April, 18V3) ; while Gervais' Journal de Zoologie contains an abstract of the Italian anatomist's (Dr. Leone de Sanctis) paper on the embryonic development of the electrical organs of the Torpedo. He finds that they are developed from the "middle" embryonic layer of cells of embryologists. They arise from the subcutaneous con- nective tissue. Tliis median layer furnishes the abundant nervous tissue of the peripheral nerves, which forms the es- sential part of the organ. A number of launal lists and notes on the habits o^ JBirds have appeared in the American Naturalist^ and the valuable work of Dr. E. Coues, entitled "A Key to the Birds of North America," will for a long time to come remain the most com- pact manual of American ornithology that the student can procure. BOTANY. In the field of Botany the English systematic botanists have been especially busy. The most important of their w^orks has been a continuation of the " Genera Plantarum," by Bentham and Hooker (devoted mainly to the large and difticult orders Ruhiacem and Compositce)^ and the cognate article upon the classification, history, and geographical dis- tribution of the latter order, by Mr. George Bentham, in the Journal of the Linnsean Society. The elaboration of the Riibiacece was done by Dr. J. D. Hooker, that of the Com- positce by Mr. Bentham, who has followed a system of classi- fication diflTering widely in some respects from that of De Candolle and other botanists, with a large reduction in the number of genera. In his later article, he explains at length the principles of the arrangement adopted by him, discusses the relative value of the characters that have been relied upon for distinguishing tribes and genera, and considers the conjectural history of the order, as deducible from its pres- ent geographical distribution, which is given with full detail. Several of the new genera and species of the " Genera Plan- tarum" are illustrated by Dr. Hooker in an issue of his " Icones Plantarum." Mr. Bentham's anniversary address as president of theLin- naean Society was, like his previous ones, a production of great interest and value, and is occupied in large part by the question of the gymnospermy of conifers and their allies, civ GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND with reference to the recent conclusions of Professor Stras- burger, of Jena, and the attendant question of the derivative origin of forms and organs. The same diligent worker has also published during the year a sixth volume of the " Flora Australiensis," including the orders from Thymelece to Ama- ryllidece. In this he Avas aided by Baron von Mtiller, of Mel- bourne, Victoria. An English translation of the " Descriptive and Analytical Botany" of Le Maout and Decaisne has been made by Mrs. J. D. Hooker, with modifications, additions, and an appendix by Dr. Hooker, thus supplying a want that has long been felt by English students of general botany. Dr. J. G. Baker, besides a revision of the Scillece and Chlorogalece in the Jour- nal of the Linnaean Society, has edited the Compositm for Eichler's (Martins') " Flora Brasiliensis," and W. P. Hiern has published in the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosoph- ical Society a complete and extended monogra^^h of the Ebe- nacece. The seventeenth and final volume of De Candolle's "Pro- dromus " has recently appeared, completing the dicotyledo- nous orders, with the exception of the Artocar'pim, and so far finishing the work begun by the father fifty years ago. The entire class of monocotyledonous plants, however, still re- mains untouched. Little else in systematic botany has ap- peared on the Continent beyond some articles in the jour- nals as by Otto Boeckeler, in " Linnaea," upon the Cyper- acem; and by Dr. Wawra, in the "Flora," upon the flora of the Hawaian Islands. Dr. J. Miiller, of Geneva, however, has contributed to the "Flora Brasiliensis" a thick fascicle, con- taining two tribes {Phyllanthece and Crotonem) of the order JEupthorhiacece ; and Maximowicz and Herder, of St. Peters- burg, have continued their contributions to the botany of Eastern Asia, including general revisions of Lespedeza and some other genera. In cryptogamic and physiological botany, Dr. E. Bornet gives in the " Annales des Sciences Naturelles " the results of his researches into the composition of lichens, apparently es- tablishing as a fact, what had before been suggested by De Bary and partially developed by Schwendener, that lichens of every description are of a composite character and formed of filamentous, fruit -bearing tissue parasitic upon green cells, INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. cv the former being fitngi^ the latter algm or, in other words, that every lichen is simply some fungus living upon some spe- cies of alga. Van Tieghem has continued his study of the embryo, showing how far its several members (cotyledons, plumule, caudicle, and radicle) are independent of each other, and capable separately of developing a comf)lete plant, and also the nature of their connection with the albumen when present. Professor Miiller, of Lipstadt, has published a com- pend of the observations that have been made on the fertil- ization of flowers by the agency of insects, with many orig- inal facts and numerous illustrations, havinsj reference to the peculiar structural modifications which exist in insects adapt- ing them to this end, as well as in flowers. Dr. B. Sanderson, of University College, London, in a paper before the British Association, shows that in cases of irritability and motion in plants, there exist electrical currents similar to those accom- panying living animal muscle and nerve, and, so far as inves- tigations have gone, governed by the same laws. In America, the Smithsonian Institution has published a contribution by Dr. H. C. Wood, Jr., upon the Fresh-water Algae of North America, supplementing the " Nereis Boreali- Americana " of Harvey, and illustrated by excellent color- ed lithographic plates. It describes all the known genera and species, and a copious bibliography of previous authors is added. In the Transactions of the St. Louis Academy, Dr. George Engelmann has given his " Notes upon the Genus Yucca," defining the species, and explaining the mode of fertilization of the flower, which was previously unknown. Dr. Asa Gray contributes to the Proceedings of the American Academy characters of some new genera and species, and notes upon Compositm^ having reference chiefly to the bear- ing of Bentham's revision of the order upon the American flo- ra, with a revision of the genus Bigeloma (or Linosyris), In the same Proceedings has appeared a revision, by Sereno Watson, of the large and somewhat difficult genera Xiqmius, Potentilla, and (Enothera^ which have long needed re-elabo- ration. A revision of the section Avicidaria of the genus Polygonum^ and descriptions of a number of new plants from Arizona or the adjacent region, by the same hand, have ap- peared in the American Naturalist^ as also an anatomical study of species oi Lemna by Professor T. D. Biscoe. Some 5* evi ' GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND new ferns of the United States and Mexico have been de- scribed by Professor D. C. Eaton, and a hundred and fifty new species of fungi by Charles W. Peck in the Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of Natural History. Rev. W. J. Berkely l]as also continued in "Grevillea" his notices of North American fungi. Catalogues have been published of E. Hall's Texan collection of 1872 by Dr. Gray, and of Hayden's collection of the same year in the Yellowstone region by Dr. J. M. Coul- ter. A work upon the flora of Colorado, by Professor T. C. Porter and Dr. Coulter, is in an advanced stage of progress. A fuU.list of the new phenogamous genera and species of the United States that have been published during the year may be seen elsewhere in this volume. Investigations in the field have been carried on quite ex- tensively the past season in connection with government sur- veys in the Western Territories. A very large collection has been made by Dr. J. T. Rothrock and Mr. J. Wolffe, under Lieutenant G. M. Wheeler, in Southern Colorado. Dr. C. C. Parry has collected in Northern Wyoming and Montana; Dr. Coulter has again accompanied Dr. Hayden's survey ; Mr. J. A. Allen has collected on the line of the Northern Pacific Railroad ; and Mr. Dall in the Aleutian Islands. Botanical science in this country has suffered a serious loss in the deaths of Dr. John Torrey, of New York; Wil- liam S. Sullivant, of Ohio ; and Elias Durand, of Philadelphia, who have been more or less closely identified with it for many years. AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY. Much the largest part of the progress in Agricultural sci- ence comes from researches made in Europe, especially in the agricultural experiment stations which have, during the last two decades, been steadily increasing in numbers, activity, and usefulness. These experiment stations consist of chem- ical laboratories connected with stables, fields, gardens, or greenhouses, where men of the highest scientific attainments and practical skill are engaged in the study of problems of importance in agriculture. Of these experiment stations, there are in the various countries of Europe some seventy, of which about half have been founded during the past five years. The majority are German, there being some thirty in INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. cvii the kingdoms of Prussia and Saxony alone. The work of these stations consists for the most part of experiments on the nutrition and growth of animals and plants, and investi- gations of soils, fodder materials, and especially commercial fertilizers. In animal nutrition, important series of experiments have been andare still being made by Henneberg, director of the station at Weende, in Hanover; Kiihn, of the station at Mockern, in Saxony; Stohmann, of Leipzig; Wolff, of Ho- henheini ; Hoffmeister, of Dresden, and others. Some of the principal subjects are the digestibility of different kinds of food by different domestic animals; the effects of different kinds and quantities of food upon the quantity and quality of milk produced by cows and goats, and the functions of the various food ingredients in the animal economy. The experiments on the digestibility of food are made by analyzing the food and solid excrement, the difference being the amount disjested. At the station at Weende there have been completed up to the present time nearly seventy feed- ing experiments with oxen, involving observations of this sort. In general about half of the hay and straw consumed by the animals was digested. The difference in digestibility of hay and straw is much less than has been supposed. The greater value of the hay as fodder depends chiefly upon its fi^reater content of diG:estible nitros^enous matters. The experiments on milk production have been made by feeding cows and goats with rations varying in amount and composition, the food given and the milk produced being ac- curately measured and analyzed. A large number have been made, and with the utmost care and accuracy. It is found that, in general, while the total quantity of the milk is in- creased up to a certain point by large and rich food rations, and while as the milk increases in quantity it also grows somewhat richer, and contains a larger percentage of dry mat- ter, yet beyond this limit a further increase in the quantity or richness of the food is without effect on the milk. It is further found that attempts to change the composi- tion of the organic substance of the milk, the relative amounts of caseine and fat, by increasing the amounts of fats or albu- minoids in the food, are of no avail. The practical inference from these experiments is that, as regards milk production, cviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND too high feeding is wasteful, and that, for milk richer in butter or caseine, recourse must be had to different breeds of cattle rather than to alterations in the composition of the fodder. A most interesting feature of some of the feeding experi- ments is the use of the so-called " respiration apparatus" de- vised by Pettenkofer of Munich. Besides the one in use by Pettenkofer, three others are already in operation in the Ger- man experiment stations. The apparatus consists of a large air-tight chest or compartment, in which the animal is kept while under experiment. Arrangements are made for sup- plying food and water, and for collecting the solid and liquid excrement, while the supply of air is constantly renewed by a current which is analyzed before and after j)assing through the compartment, and thus the products of respiration are determined. By this means the amount and composition of the food, and of all the products of its transformation in the animal's body, may be determined. From these data are in- ferred the functions of the different food insjredients in the animal economy. This method of experimenting is compar- atively new and very complicated. It gives promise of re- sults of great importance for the theory, of cattle-feeding. The most important experiments in vegetable nutrition and growth may be divided into two general classes : those performed in natural soils, as in gardens and fields, for the purpose of observing the effect of different fertilizers and methods of culture on the growth of different crops ; and those in which plants are grown in artificial soils or in water*, to which are added the various chemical elements found to be taken by plants from the soil the object being to de- termine which of these are essential to the growth of the plant, and Avhat are the functions of each in the vegetable economy. Knop, Sachs, N'obbe, Hellriegel, and Wolff are among the most prominent in these investigations. Nobbe, of the station at Tharand, in Saxony, has lately completed a series of experiments upon the function of potassium in the growth of buckwheat and rye. The plants were raised in solutions containing all the essential ingredients of plant food, except that, in some cases, potassium was omitted. The plants grown with the full list of food ingredients were nor- pial and healthy, while those deprived of potash were dwarfed. INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. cix sickly, and abnormal. It appeared that in the latter there was no formation of starch. The general result of the ex- periments was that the building of starch in the chlorophyl grains, and, in consequence, the growth of the plant, is de- pendent upon the co-operation of potassium in the cell fluid. The functions of the other ingredients of the food of the plant are being studied, and with promise of most interesting re- sults. One very important function of the experiment stations, especially in Germany, is the control of the trade in commer- cial fertilizers, which is exercised by means of chemical anal- yses made at the stations. The value of these manures is de- pendent upon their composition, and, by these analyses, frauds are detected, and the relative values of good wares determined. The savin sj to the acjricultural communities where the stations exist, by the exercise of this control, and the consequent improvement of the quality of the ferti- lizers used, amounts to many times the whole cost of the sta- tions. In Germany this control system is being extended to the examination of seeds sold for sowing, and several stations have been started during the past two or three years for this .especial object. Among the stations lately established is one at Lodi, in Northern Italy, for experiments in dairying, and especially cheese manufacture. Besides the labors of the experiment stations, those of Boussingault, in France, who still continues his very valuable researches, and of Voelcker, in England, who works under the auspices of the Royal Agricultural Society, are too important to be overlooked. It is also a cause of great gratification to the friends of agricultural science that Mr. Lawes, who, in conjunction with Dr. Gilbert, has been carrying on for more than a score of years the well-known experiments at Rotham- stead, in England, has provided by a munificent bequest for their continuance after his death. We also take great pleas- ure in recording the fact that at a Farmers' Convention, held under the auspices of the Board of Agriculture of Connecti- cut, in December, 1873, steps were taken to>vard the estab- lishment of an experiment station in that state. ex GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND PISCICULTURE AND THE FISHERIES. The subject offish-culture and the fisheries continues to increase in importance, and in view of the economical value of the products of the sea and the interior waters, and in the amount of capital and effort directed toward their acqui- sition, this interest is amply justified. Several exhibitions during 1873 have been made of fishery- products and interests, the most important being that at Vi- enna during the j^ast summer. Legislation has also been in- itiated or continued looking toward the judicial determina- tion of the rights of the general public and of the individual, the most important step in this direction being the decision of the Uliited States Supreme Court in reference to the obli- gation of the corporation controlling the dam across the Con- necticut River at Holyoke to construct a suitable fish-way. This river in former years abounded in shad and salmon from its mouth to its sources, and furnished a vast amount of ex- cellent food to a large population. The erection of dams along its course obstructed the upward movement of the anadromous fish, with the result of finally exterminating the salmon, and of reducing the supply of shad to a minimum. The most considerable of these obstructions, and the first met with above tide-water, was the great dam at Holyoke. An Act of the Massachusetts Legislature, authorizing the Fish Commissioners of that state to require the construction of a fish-way over this dam, was resisted by the company, and the case carried successively to the Supreme Courts of Mas- sachusetts and of the LTnited States, judgment being given by both tribunals against the company, which was thus obliged to yield. A fish- way was constructed during 1873 upon the plan of Mr. E. A. Brackett, of Massachusetts, which, it is hoped, will answer the purpose in view. In no country, however, has the subject of the fisheries and their legal relations been more thoroughly considered than in Germany ; and a very elaborate system of regula- tions is now under discussion, which, it is expected, will be the most complete in existence. The number of states havins; Fish Commissioners for the CI? improvement and regulation of the fisheries within their bor- ders has been increased during the year by the addition of INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. cxi Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Michigan ; so that at the present time all the Xew England and Middle States except Delaware, and all the states bordering on the great lakes with the ex- ception of Indiana, Illinois,Wisconsin, and Minnesota, are pro- vided with these important state officers. Movements are in progress, however, which it is probable will result during 1874 in the appointment of Commissioners in Minnesota, Illi- nois, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, and possibly Iowa. - Numerous statistical publications in reference to the fish- eries of the Old World and the New have made their appear- ance, although mostly relating to 1872. We have also a very elaborate communication from Dr. Francis Day on the fresh-water fisheries of India, and another by the Minister of Marine and the Fisheries of Canada. It is to be regretted that no provision is made by the United States government for the collection and publication of accurate and exhaustive details on this branch of industry, so ably worked up by France, Norway, and other foreign nations. The special fisheries of the w^orld have been prosecuted with their average success. The herring has furnished provi- sion and employment for immense numbers of people both in Europe and America. Tlie Astrachan herring {Alosa cas- pica), a species probably like our fresh-water herring or ale- wife, which w^as, up to the years 1854 and 1855, only used in extracting the oil, has taken a prominent place as a food fisli since that time. The Russian name, hescheuJm (the furious fish), seems to have incited a prejudice against it; but through the eflTorts of Mr. Baer, and a board of commissioners ap- pointed to investigate the fisheries of Russia, the prejudice was largely overcome, and, under the name of herring, as a salted fish it has become an important element in the Caspi- an fisheries. In 1858 there w^ere salted in the rivers of As- trachan 43,000,000 of this fish. The number in 1871 was 140,000,000; and in 1872, 160,000,000; while in 1872 only 30,000 w^ere used for oil. The cod fisheries of both the Atlantic and Pacific have also been abundantly worked. The occurrence of cod in immense numbers in the Pacific is a fact of recent appreciation ; and it is satisfactory to know that, should the supply from the Atlantic be at all seriously impaired, the deficiency can be made up from the Pacific. According to a San Francisco cxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND journal, 583,000 cod-fish were taken by seven vessels off the coast of Alaska in the summer of 1873. No estimate can at present be formed of the captures off the Banks of Newfound- land and the coast of Norway. New cod banks have lately been discovered off the coast of Spitzbergen. The trade in frozen herring off the coast of Maine and in the Bay of Fundy continues to be of great importance. This comparatively new interest has been increasing gradually for many years, and now employs a large force during the win- ter season. The fish are taken in gill-nets and immediately frozen, and then shipped to the western markets of Portland, Boston, New York, etc. The Bay of Fundy is particularly favorable for this trade ; and the recent establishment of a signal station at Eastport has been of great moment, by en- abling those engaged in the business to anticipate the occur- rence of a period of hot or cold weather in time to take measures to protect themselves from loss. The application of the signal telegraph in the service of the fisheries in the United States is comparatively recent, and promises to be of great benefit by communicating information of the occurrence of schools of fish along the coast, and of their movements, to those interested in their capture. Another application of the signal telegraph is made by the dealers in fish both on the lakes and the sea-board, who reg- ulate their orders and shipments of fresh fish by the knowl- edge thus obtained of impending atmospheric conditions. The American salmon trade continues to increase, and the number of establishments engaged in canning and preparing them for market on the Columbia River and in Puget Sound becomes larger every year. It would almost seem that the vast numbers taken for this purpose must soon bring about their extermination, but as yet no perceptible decrease is re- ported. Numbers of these fish are brought fresh to the East in refrigerator cars to supply the market earlier than the period during which the eastern salmon can be taken. In view of the great increase of the halibut fisheries oif the coast of the United States, the hardy fishermen of Cape Ann, who more especially carry on this branch of industry, are obliged to resort to distant seas to obtain a supply; and even Greenland is not too far for their eflfbrts. The coast of Iceland, too, has also been visited by a Gloucester vessel for INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. cxiii this purpose ; but, although the halibut were abundant, the stormy nature of the region and other impediments rendered it impracticable to continue the effort. A rapidly increasing trade is that connected with the men- haden, mossbunker, or pogy {Brevoortia menhaden)^ a, large species of the herring family valuable for the oil and scrap the refuse after extracting the oil from the boiled fish, which is used in direct applications to the land, or in the manufact- ure of fertilizers. Some idea of the magnitude of the inter- est may be learned from the fact that in 1873 sixty-two fac- tories Avere in operation on the coast of New York and of New England, requiring the use of 383 sailing-vessels and 20 steamers, the factories and vessels employing 2306 men, with an investment of $2,388,000. The total catch offish amounted to 1,193,100 barrels (250 fish to the barrel), yielding 2,214,800 gallons of oil, and 36,299 tons of guano. The oil is used principally in dressing leather, and to some extent in rope- making and for painting, but not as yet for lubricating. Another increasing fishery in the United States is that re- lating to the sturgeon, which, though abundant, has been but little utilized, thousands annually taken in pursuit of other fish having usually been thrown aside as worthless. Now several dealers on the lakes, especially the Messrs. Schacht, of Sandusky, are entering into the trade, and manufacture caviar, isinglass, and dried smoked meat in great quantities. The demand for fish-sounds continues very great, and the shores of New England and the provinces are carefully glean- ed of .all air-bladders procurable of the cod family. Of the species, the bladder of the hake is most sought after, bring- ing about one dollar a pound, and is used chiefly, it is said, in the manufacture of gum-drops. The seal fishery during 1873 has also been very productive, the number taken at the Fur-Seal Islands in the Behrinc: Sea being up to the maximum namely, 100,000. The seals resort by millions to these islands, and it is said that a con- siderably larger number might be caught without any detri- ment to the trade. The capture of the hair- seals ofi" the coasts of Labrador and Newfoundland, although less exten- sive than in 1872, has also been a source of very great profit. This business is now carried on entirely by steamers, of which not less than twenty belonging to Newfoundland cxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND were occupied, some of them getting two full cargoes. The largest catch of any vessel, it is believed, was about 42,000; these having been taken in the course of a few weeks, and, from the skins and the oil, yielding an immense profit. The rapid decrease of lobsters on the coast of the United States, and the extent of the interest connected with canninsf them as an article of food, has induced a special effort to bring back the sujiply. The amount of this interest may be appreciated when we are told that during 1873 more than twenty thousand tons of canned lobsters were brought into the United States, or shipped elsewhere, from the shores of 'New Brunswick and Nova Scotia alone. An ordinance has been issued by the Canadian authorities prohibiting, under severe penalties, the capture of any lobsters weighing less than a pound and a half; and Massachusetts will probably en- act a law prescribing a limit of size namely, a minimum of eleven inches in length. In Maine, the legislation anticipated is that of a close time of two or three months in the summer, when none shall be taken, but imposing no restriction at other seasons as to size or weight. The oyster fisheries, as far as the canning interest is con- cerned, suffered a severe shock during the financial i^anic, from which it has not yet recovered, although the consump- tion of the oyster while fresh is perhaps as great as usual. Vessels now carry entire cargoes from Maryland and Virginia to England, where they are becoming an established article of trade. It will be of interest to announce that the United States Fish Commission is experimenting on a method of effectually freeing beds of planted oysters from the ravages of the star- fish, so destructive to them. Much valuable information has been obtained in reference to the fishery statistics, and the conditions affecting the fish- eries generally, by the labors of the United States Fish Commission, which continued its investigations under the di- rection of the Commissioner, Professor S. F. Baird, assisted by Professor Verrill, on the coast of Maine during the sum- mer of 1873. Detailed information Avas obtained in refer- ence to the habits of the herring, cod, and other useful food fishes, which will have an important bearing on these inter- ests. Numerous questions in reference to the preservation INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. cxv and reproduction of lobsters and oysters were also met. One result Avas the frequent capture of two-year-old shad in gill- nets many miles out to sea. In connection with the subject of the fisheries, the modern methods of preserving fish fresh for an indefinite period of time should not be lost sight of, especially as their introduc- tion has imparted immense activity to the trade in fresh fish, and enables the dealers to supply salmon, shad, Spanish mack- erel, bluefish, striped bass, etc., at all seasons of the year. Of these devices there are two principally in use, one con- sisting in placing the fish in sealed metal boxes in a mixture of ice and salt ; and the other, much more convenient, being the construction of a cliamber inclosed within double walls, and filled with the same mixture. The fish are placed in the centre apartment, the temperature of which can be readily maintained at from 18 to 25 above zero, and are preserved indefinitely. It is only necessary to renew the supply of the mixture every week or month, according to the mass, and the temperature above referred t*o can be kept up indefinite- ly. Some establishments in New York and elsewhere keep many thousands of pounds offish in this way, subject to call at any time. The various methods of increasing artificially the supply of fish and other marine animals, technically knoAvn as Pis- ciculture, have been prosecuted with increasing vigor during the year 1873, the earlier experiences warranting the adop- tion of more enlarged plans for securing the desired result. Associations have been formed, and state commissions ap- pointed, while numerous private establishments have been erected. The most important action in this direction is that taken by the United States Fish Commission, established in 1871, which is now largely occupied with this work, in addi- tion to special researches in reference to the condition of the fishing interest on the sea-coast and lakes. The measures adopted have had more special relation to the multiplication of shad, salmon, and w^hitefish; and in these operations the United States Commission was fortunate in securing the assistance of Mr, Seth Green, Dr. J. H. Slack, Mr. Livingston Stone, and other fish-culturists. Its operations have been conducted on a much larger scale than by any other nation, and with very gratifying success. cxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND With a view of securing a sufficient supply of the eggs of the California salmon^ Mr. Livingston Stone, as in the pre- vious year, was sent out to the United States salmon-breed- ing camp on the McCloud River, near Mount Shasta, where he obtained about a million and a half of eggs, which were ship- ped to the East (a portion to Utah), and about half of them successfully hatched out, at various state and private estab- lishments, and placed in different streams in the Northern, Middle, and Western States. The more important waters supplied are several streams in Maine and Massachusetts, the Connecticut, Hudson, Delaware, and Potomac rivers. Lake Champlain, Lake Ontario, Lake Erie, and Lake Michigan, and the Ohio River. During the year, also, the establishment at Bucksport, Maine, under Mr. Atkins, continued its operations on an en- larged scale and with very satisfactory success. While the salmon are seined when wanted on the McCloud, at this es- tablishment they are purchased living from the fishermen, who capture them in weirs'in the months of June and July, and place them in a large pond, to await the period of repro- duction. Here they remain until October or November, when the instinct of spawning seizes them, and they run down into the outlet of the pond, where the hatching-works are situ- ated. The spawn is removed by gentle pressure into a ves- sel, and fertilized, and the parent fish returned alive to the water, and allowed ultimately to run down to the sea. Pre- viously, however, they are marked by a label, so as to de- termine w^hether any come back again ; and in this event to ascertain the growth and increase of weight in the interval, their orio^inal lensjth and weisfht beincr recorded. These eggs are then brought forward to a proper de- gree of development, and finally distributed to State Com- missioners, by whom the operation is completed, and the young placed in the public waters of the states. It is ex- pected that, as the result of the operations of these two estab- lishments during 1873, not far from three million (3,000,000) young salmon will be planted in the eastern, middle, and northern waters of the United States, including those placed in the tributaries of the Great Salt Lake. Another enterprise of a similar character has been the erec- tion of an establishment for the hatching of the eggs of land- INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. cxvii locked salmon on Sebec Lake, in Maine, in which the Commis- sioners of Massachusetts and Connecticut have united with the United States Commissioner. It is hoped that, when this is fairly in operation, a large supply of this most valuable food fish will be secured. Operations looking toward the multiplication of shad in American waters, both on the part of the United States and of some of the states themselves, have also been conducted on a large scale. The work Avas prosecuted by the United States on many of the coast streams from the Savannali River to the Penobscot, and large numbers of young fish were not only turned into the water at the points where they were hatched, but transferred to tributaries of the Mississippi and of the great lakes. A successful shipment was also made to the Sacramento River of 35,000, and a small number to the Jordan, a tributary of Great Salt Lake. As in previous years, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and 'New York carried on similar operations for the benefit of the local waters, while a beginning was made in the same direction by the Commissioner^ of Pennsylvania in the Susquehanna River. The cultivation of whitefish has also been prosecuted with great zeal, particularly by the States of Michigan and New York, while a considerable number belonging to the United States Commission was sent to the Commissioners of Cali- fornia, and by them successfully planted in the waters of Clear Lake. The operations in connection with whitefish have of late years been prosecuted on a very large scale by the State of New York, under the direction of Mr. Seth Green. Li 1872 the state hatching-house at Caledonia contained about 3,000,000,. which were duly planted when hatched. The number was less in ISYS. In 1872 the United States Commission engaged the services of Mr. IST. W. Clark, in connection with the white- fish eggs, and transmitted about 400,000 to the State Com- missioner in California. In 1873 the State of Michigan col- lected a larg;e number of these esfocs for introduction into its own and adjacent waters. This fish, as is well known, is the most important of any species taken in the lakes, and it is fortunate that the method of their artificial propagation proves successful, and promises so satisfactory results. Only cxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND by such a process can the enormous waste and drain caused by the fisheries as at i^resent prosecuted be met and replaced, an expenditure of ten or fifteen thousand dollars per annum being sufficient to secure the return in value of many hun- dred thousand dollars in productive results. .The discovery of a species of grayling {Thymallus tricolor) in certain rivers of Michigan, has suggested the importance of making this fish more widely known, by introducing it into appropriate w^aters elsewhere. Fish of this genus are much esteemed in Europe, both as an article of food and as furnishing excellent sport in their capture ; and the American variety will probably be much sought after when arrange- ments can be made to supply the spawn in sufficient quan- tity. A very important advance in the artificial propagation of fish was made by Seth Green and party wdiile in the service of the United States Commission, in the discovery that striped bass, or rock-fish {Eocciis linealus)^ may be bred as easily and in much the same manner as the shad ; special effort will probably be made during the coming year toward in- creasing the supply of this most valuable fish. MECHANICS AND ENGINEERING. A review of the condition o^ tho, Iron producing and man- ufacturing industries for the year (1873) presents a picture of great prostration. From the statistics of the American Iron and Steel Association, it appears that fully 07ie half of the furnaces have been blown out ; w^hile the rollinsf-mills are either w^orking on short time or are bare of orders, and the mining of iron ore has slackened to a corresponding de- gree. This condition of things, so very different" from the unex- ampled prosperity of the preceding year, is to be attributed to the great restriction of the building operations of railroads and especially of Western roads and the present almost absolute suspension of farther railway extension as one of the immediate results of the present financial crisis. During the year 1872 forty new furnaces were erected in various parts of the United States, and the erection of others was undertaken; and the extension of rolling-mills, etc., kept pace with the increased producing capacity wliich they rep- INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. cxix resented ; while the furnaces and mills were worked to their utmost to meet the orders which came in upon them. The production of pig-iron in the United States for 1872 was 2,830,070 net tons, or 2,526,848 gross tons. In 1873, the ascertained production during the first six months of the year was 1,393,075 net tons ; and the estimated production for the entire year 1873 is 2,695,434 net tons, or 2,406,637 gross tons ; showing a i:)robable decrease in production, as compared with that of the previous year, of 134,636 net tons. It is regarded as probable that, had not the financial crisis in- tervened, the total iron production for the year 1873 would have exceeded 3,000,000 tons. The estimated capacity of all the furnaces in the United States is 4,371,277 net tons. The total number of furnaces in the United States, exclusive of abandoned and projected furnaces, is 636. The total num- ber finished and put in blast in 1873 is 42, of w^hich a num- ber are among the largest in the country. The American make of rails during the year 1873 will prob- ably be about 850,000 tons (of which 120,000 tons will be Bessemer rails), as compared with 941,992 tons produced in 1872, showing a decrease of nearly 100,000 tons. The product of the forges and bloomeries of the country is estimated for 1873 at about 50,000 tons, against 58,000 in 1872. Concerning the production of steel, it appears that, while there is the same fallinsf off in the fiojures indicatingr total O 3 3 production as compared with the previous year (28,000 tons as compared to 32,000), the introduction of improved proc- esses for its manufacture (the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes) show an encouraging development, as the summary below appended indicates. There are eight Bessemer works for the conversion of steel and the rolling of rails at present in working condition in the United States. These are located at the following places : Troy, N". Y. ; Johnstown, Pa. ; Bethlehem, Pa. ; Harrisburg, Pa. ; Newburg, Ohio ; Chicago, 111. ; and Joliet, in the same state ; while the capacity of the Harrisburg works is in course of being doubled by the erection of a new plant, and the Ed- gar Thompson Steel Works, near Pittsburgh, Pa., will be com- pleted in 1874. The total capacity of the Bessemer works now in operation in the country is 170,000 tons. cxx GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND The following table is a copy from the official report of the Secretary of the American Iron and Steel Association, and is a summary in net tons of the ascertained and estimated production of iron and steel in the United States in 1872 and 1873, to wit: 1S72. 18T3. Iron and Steel rails 941,992 850,000 Other rolled and hammered iron... 1,000,000 980,000 Forges and bloomeries 58,000 50,000 Cast steel 32,000 228,000 Bessemer steel 110,500 140,000 Siemens-Martin steel 3,000 3,500 rig-iron 2,830,070 2,095,434 In the department of railway construction the most sen- sitive test of the prosperity of the iron-producing interests of the country a corresponding decrease is observable. The culmination of railroad construction in this country was at- tained in 1871, when 7779 miles of road were constructed. In 1872 a decline w^as inaugurated, the figures falling to 6427 miles ; while in the year 1873 a decrease of 50 per cent, on the figures of the preceding year fully indicates the prime cause of the present prostration of the iron industry of the country. Aside from the extension of the lines of railroad in the country, the statistics of which are noted elsewhere, the in- terest of the engineering public has been centred upon the progress of a number of tunnel and bridge constructions which have been, in the main, steadily pushed toward com- pletion. Of these, perhaps the most prominently before the public is the Hoosac Tunnel, which is now practically finished the actual tunneling work having been finished November 27, 1873. It is, however, not anticipated that the tunnel will be ready for the passage of trains until about the month of July, 1874. Aside from the magnitude of the work, the probabilities are that no engineering task ever prosecuted to a successful conclusion can point to so many vicissitudes in its career. It was undertaken some twenty years ago, and repeatedly abandoned, until contracted for by the Messrs. Shanly in the year 1869. These gentlemen have, in the face of many natural obstacles, carried the work to its successful termination. The total length of tunnel is 25,031 > INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. cxxi feet, or four and three-quarter miles. It is twenty-six feet in wiclti], and varies in height from twenty-three to twenty-six feet wherever a brick arch is used. Passing through solid rock excavation, the section is reduced to twenty-four feet wide by twenty feet high. Another engineering enterprise of some magnitude, the Cleveland Water-works Tunnel, which has had a history almost as checkered as the enterprise above al- luded to, has likewise been completed during the year. The capacity of the tunnel is from sixty to seventy million gallons of w^ater daily : amply sufficient to supply the city when it shall have a population of a million, should that time ever arrive. The completion of the Underground Railways through the city of Baltimore during the past year is worthy of record, not so much on account of the novelty or magnitude of the un- dertaking, as because this is the first systematic movement in the country to inaugurate the underground-railway sys- tem, which has been long since adopted very extensively abroad, as the most rational solution of the problem of rail- way transit through populous cities. The tunnels in question form two distinct lines, whereby nearly all the railroads centring in the city have been brought into connection, greatly adding to public conven- ience and facilitating business intercourse. Their total length is three and one-half miles, of which about two miles are closed tunnels, and the remainder open cuts, over which the streets are carried on brido'es. The work upon the great steel bridge at St. Louis is not completed, but is being pushed steadily forward, as is also the work upon the tunnel connecting with it. Of engineering enterprises which have been projected, per- haps the most interesting is the proposal to pierce the Rocky Mountains with a tunnel. The objects and advantages to be gained therefrom are stated to be the development of new mineral veins, and of the resources of that region of country, by increasing the facilities of transportation. If ever com- pleted, it will be carried through from a point near Black Hawk, and will come out in the Middle Park. The tunnel will be twelve miles long. It is declared that work from the Middle Park will be commenced early next year, and that already much of the preliminary preparation has been made. 6 cxxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND The production of Coal in the United States for the year just passed will, in consequence of the serious prostration of the iron producing and manufacturing industries, fall some- what below the figures of 1872, as a natural consequence. In this connection, the most instructive feature of the sub- ject for our yearly summary of progress is to be found in the very general attention to the utility and expediency of introducing into American mines the system of raining coal with the aid of coal-cutting machines, which have proved themselves so economical and such practical solvers of labor difficulties abroad. The subject has been the theme of dis- cussion before several of the American enojineerino- societies during the year, and the system generally pronounced to be susceptible of much less utility here than abroad ; inasmuch as the economy of such machinery, according to the best-in- formed judges, will be in the inverse ratio to the thickness of the veins on which it is employed. In most American localities where the mining of coal is largely carried on, the veins are of considerable, often, indeed, of enormous thickness, as compared with those of European countries ; the waste is therefore less, the production far greater with equal labor, and consequently the necessity for machine-work less urgent than there. In the Indiana coal-mining district, however, where the coal seams are comparatively thin, coal-cutting machinery of American design was introduced during the last year, and from the statements of the mine owners, has proved itself to be very advantageous on the score of econ- omy. It is probable, therefore, that the success of this first experiment will inaugurate the general introduction of such machinery in this country where the conditions are similar; so that our next year's summary may find this innovation to be a very general practice. This inference is warranted by the statement that in England, where these machines have been very largely introduced during the past year, and where the coal seams have an average thickness of from two to three feet, it is estimated that 60,000 men only would be required, with their aid, to raise the 120,000,000 tons annually put out, instead of the 360,000 now called for. In connection with the same subject, the question of the utilization of the coal-waste, or slack, can not be passed by without a brief notice of the attempts which have been made INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. cxxiii during the past year to solve this j^uzzling problem. The chief difficulty in the path of inventors in this field has been the very important one of cost of production ; and it may be said, without fear of contradiction, that the quality of the material produced has been but a secondary consideration in the question when compared with this. The last year has, liowever, witnessed some great improvements in this direc- tion, which have received a full share of public attention. At the fair of the American Institute in New York, there was on exhibition the model of a machine for producing ar- tificial fuel which in some respects surpassed any thing hith- erto devised. The process in question is the invention of Mr. E. F. Loiseau, who has given many years' attention to the subject. Thecorai^osition of the fuel is coal-slack and com- mon yellow clay, moistened with milk of lime. The manu- facture is carried on automatically, the crude materials enter- ing the apparatus at one end, and emerging finished and ready for shipment at the other. The only manual labor employed is in supplying the crude materials. Great expectations are entertained of the success of tlie process here alluded to. By this process the lumps are made of egg-shape and water- proofed, and as but five per cent, of clay is used to convert them, the heating power of the product is not materially re- duced. As the result of a series of researches upon proper fog-sig- nals, made in behalf of the Light-house Board, Professor Hen- ry has lately announced that the only instruments giving sufficient agitation to the air, to be efficient for fog-signals, are those in which the sound is reinforced by resounding cavities. The simplest of these instruments is the ordinary steam-whistle, those employed by the Board being from eight to eighteen inches in diameter, with a corresponding height, and driven by a pressure of steam of from sixty to seventy- five pounds. This instrument has the advantage of giving a sound of equal intensity in every azimuth. The DaboU air- trumpet, in which the vibrations are produced by a steel reed put in motion by air condensed by a caloric engine, gives the greatest amount of sound with a given amount of pow- er; but the instrument which exhibits the greatest penetrat- ing power of sound, without regard to the energy expended, is the siren trumpet, in which the ribrations are produced cxxiv GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND by streams of steam passing from a boiler, with a pressure of seventy pounds to the square inch, through orifices in a phite, before which revolves another plate having corresponding lioles, so as alternately to interrupt and permit the flow of steam. This instrument has been constructed, under the auspices of the Light-house Board, by Messrs. Brown, of New York, and has lately been highly approved by Professor Tyn- dall in a report to the British Trinity Board. TECHNOLOGY, In Technology^ the past year produced no remarkable or revolutionizing inventions, but numerous advances in various arts by the introduction of improved machinery and methods are noticeable in many directions. In the operation and control of railway trains, both in the United States and abroad (though to a greater extent with us), great improvements have been made within the year. These arise from tlie very great interest lately taken by the managers of railroads in improved methods of braking and switching trains. The substitution of 230wer-brakes for the hand-brakes has become very general upon American rail- roads, especially upon the Eastern roads. The principle upon which these improved appliances operate is either with com- pressed air, as in the Westinghouse ; with vacuum, as in the Smith ; or with water pressure, as in the Henderson and oth- er forms of hydraulic brakes. 'The interest which this sub- ject is attracting among railway managers is evidenced by the fact that at the recent meetino; of the American Raihvav Master Mechanics' Association, where this subject attracted much discussion, the opinion was unanimously expressed that, in view of the security and certainty with which they joer- mitted the trains to be controlled, the several forms of con- tinuous power-brakes were infinitely to be preferred to the hand-brake. The last year likewise witnessed the introduc- tion of the air-brake upon the English roads, where it has met with great success and popular approval. The increas- ino; interest manifested on all sides in securino; additional safety in railway travel, and the notable improvement in the mechanical devices to eftect this object, are matters of con- gratulation. The subject of eflTectiiig some mode of transit in large cit- INDUSTRIAL TKOGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. cxxv ies which shall cheaply and more efficiently replace the horse-cars a subject of importance at all times has received during the past year a larger share of attention than it might otherwise have attracted, owing to the Avidespread contagion amono- the horses. The result of this condition of thino-s was in one respect beneficial, inasmuch as it has brought out several excellent devices for rapid transit in cities, the neces- sities or advantages of which might otherwise have waited Ions: for recos^nition. The so-called " fireless locomotive" is an invention of this class, which is said to be in successful operation in the cities of Chicago and New Orleans, and has attracted during the last few months much attention from the engineering press. Briefly described, it consists of a boiler and the usual machinery on a small scale. To this boiler, which is three fourths filled with cold water, the steam for the trip is supplied before starting from a large supply- boiler located at the depot. Instead, therefore, of generating steam with the aid of a fire in the usual manner, a steam pressure equivalent to 170 to 180 pounds is stored up in the manner indicated, and thus fuel, fire, and fireman are dis- pensed with. Where it has been employed it is highly spoken of as a substitute for the dummy engine. Any rate of speed up to twenty miles per hour can be obtained from them. Mr. Frederick Ransome, of England, Avhose name is well known to the engineering world in connection with the man- ufacture of artificial stone, has but recently returned from a visit to this country, the object of which was to introduce his improved process, which has been so favorably commented upon in England. The so-called "Ransome stone," for many years largely and successfully employed in construction abroad, and for some years to a slight degree introduced in the United States, was made by injecting a block of sand, cemented by silicated alkali, with chloride of calcium ; by which an insoluble silicate of lime was formed in the interioi-, thus making it extremely hard and unalterable. The result- ing chloride of sodium was subsequently washed out with wa- ter. To avoid the addition of chloride of calcium and subse- quent washing, Mr. Ransome's new process employs suitable quantities of lime, and a natural soluble silica (infusorial earth), with sand and a solution of silicate of soda or potassa; cxxvi GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND which ai"e moulded and allowed to harden gradually as sili- cate of lime is formed, by the decomposition of the alkaline silicate produced by the action of the lime. The chemical reactions involved in the production of the "Apoenite stone," as the new product is called, are such that the whole of the alkali is combined, and none left free to effloresce, as is the case with the "Ransome stone;" hence no after-washing is' needed. The part taken by American exhibitors in the great Indus- trial Exposition just closed was altogether unworthy of the commanding position which this country occupies in the esti- mation of the world. The manufacturing industries of the country were but meagrely represented ; but, despite the in- completeness of the display, the American department of the great fair, especially that portion of it relating to the me- chanic arts, was the object of much interest and attraction to visitors. The comments of the foreign engineering press upon the originality of design, directness of conception, and true mechanical adaptation displayed by the few exhibits there exposed, as well as the recognition which they received at the hands of the authorities, all render it manifest that, as was the acknowledged fact at Paris in 1867, upon the field of invention and machine construction America held the first rank. While the meagreness of the American display at Vi- enna may therefore be justly a matter of regret, we may feel gratified at the praise bestowed ujDon that which was dis- played. The movement for the Centennial Exhibition, to be held in Philadelphia in 1876, has been vigorously pushed during the year. The formal transfer of the grounds from the city of Philadelphia to the Centennial Commission took place on the 4th of July, 1873, in the presence of an immense concourse, and with imposing ceremonies. The design of the building has likewise been decided uj^on, and the organization of state societies to forward the interests of the important project has been efi'ected. During the last year the demand for and supply of artifi- cial Alizari7ie have very largely increased, though its manu- facture can be said to have just foirly begun. The value of madder has decreased to such an extent by the competition with the manufactured article, that it has become a question INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. cxxvii whether it will remunerate the growers to continue its pro- duction in the future. Last year it is estimated that over one fourth of the total quantity of this dye-stuff employed was the artificial product. There can remain no doubt that the industry which" has developed so greatly within the past year or two will in the near future entirely extinguish the growing of the madder in Europe at least, thus turning thou- sands of acres of land and laborers into other and more prof- itable channels of production. In the Soda manufacture, the past year has largely wit- nessed the introduction of the new ammonia process, which bids fair to make in time as radical a change in this vast and leading chemical industry as the one above noted. In many parts of Germany and in Switzerland soda-works upon the new plan are in operation, some of them producing as much as fifteen tons per day. The new process possesses the one great advantage over the Leblanc, so universally in use up to the present time", in that the conversion of the common salt into soda is direct. The whole process depends upon the treatment of a strons; solution of common salt with bicar- bonate of ammonia ; the resultant of the reaction being the precipitation of the sodium as bicarbonate, and the formation of a chloride of ammonium. From this last, the ammonia is again recovered for a second operation by treatment with caustic lime, w^hile the sodium bicarbonate is converted into the simple carbonate the soda- of commerce by heating, the carbonic acid evolved being employed to unite again with the regained ammonia. The opinion of the judges at the late Vienna Exposition, of which Professor A. W. Hoffmann w^as president, was to the effect that the new process which has grown into a flour- ishing industry almost before its existence is generally known w^as destined in the near future to entirely exclude that of Leblanc. In the field o^ Illumination^ the year IS^S may point to several decided advances. The process of Tessie du Mothay, which during the past few years has been the topic of so much and varying criticism, has been very thoroughly tested in Vienna for the illumination of depots and other large pub- lic buildings, and with most excellent effect. The unfavora- ble comments made upon the oxygen illumination process, cxxviii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND after its withdrawal from the public streets of Paris, upon which it was placed awhile for trial, have done more, per- haps, than any thing else to divert public interest from it ; but the Vienna experiments, involving, as they do, numerous modifications upon the original plan, are declared to have proved so strikingly successful as to leave no doubt of the entire practicability of the system, within limits of reasona- ble economy. The old plan as practiced in Paris, and likewise in New York, involved the carbureting of the coal-gas, previous to combustion, with oxygen a process attended with incon- venience, both on the score of introducing an additional item of expense and complicated apparatus. The burner em- ployed, also, was of the argand pattern, the oxygen being in- troduced into the interior of the gas flame, which was of a tapering, cylindrical form. The concentrated character of the light aflbrded by this arrangement of burner was of a nat- ure to seriously pain the eyes of the beholder after a time, and it was from this cause open to objection. The experimental trials which have proved so successful in Vienna, under the intelligent direction of Herr Bernhard Andrae, have shown that, where the oxygen system is to be largely employed, it will be far more practical and economic- al to modify the existing gas-works so as to produce a very rich gas, than to employ the old plan of carbureting with benzine, or with compressetl boghead cannel-gas, heretofore in practice. In addition, the argand form for the burner, and the method of supplying the gases, have been much improved and modified. In the plan found most satisfactory in Vienna, the central position is given to the burning gas, and the oxygen is ad- mitted to the exterior, while the flame proper has the broad- surfaced flat form aflbrded by the well-known Scotch burner. The latter is made in the ordinary way, the oxygen being brought to the iiame by a peculiar attachment separate from it. One of the existing gas-works has been so modified as to produce a rich gas, thus obviating the necessity of carburet- ing, and an oxygen gas-works has been located beside it. Thus, with all the factors at hand, which are of value in esti- mating the practicability of the new process, the favorable judgment which has been expressed must be regarded with INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. cxxix interest by all who give the subject of illumination even passing attention. Several of the large depots of Vienna are illuminated, with satisfactory results, upon the modified plan here described. Open, unprotected flames, fed with oxygen, illuminate the en- trance and exit galleries, and the vast interior of these build- ings, with a light of exquisite mildness, brilliancy, and white- ness of color, with none of the glare whicli, with the central burners of the old plan, produced a painful impression upon the eye. It is to be hoped that the success which the oxygen light has met with in Vienna will stimulate its American advo- cates to emulate so desirable a consummation. Another very decided advance in the field of illumination is afibrded by the dynamo-electric machine of M. Gramme, which, though for some time before the scientific W' orld, has only during the last year attracted the attention which its remarkable capabilities deserve.' The description of the ma- chine belongs properly in our department of Physics, where it will be found. The luminous efiects produced throuo:h its instrumentality leave little to be desired. A large Gramme machine, which was exhibited in London, produced a light equal to about eight thousand candles, and still larger ma- chines are being made which Mr. Crookes expects to give a light equal to twenty-five thousand candles. A seeming solution of the problem of electrical illumina- tion for city and domestic purposes, which shall avoid the difticulty of the concentrated brilliancy, trouble of adjust- ment, and complication of various forms of the electric light, is furnished by Mr. A. Ladiguin, of St. Petersburg. The ma- chine is driven by an engine, the luminous efiect being pro- duced by a single piece of carbon, or other bad conductor, connected with the machine, and placed in a glass tube ex- hausted of air, filled with some gas which will not combine with carbon at a high temperature, and then hermetically sealed. The carbon is gradually and equably heated, and is said to emit a soft, steady, and continuous light. One ma- chine, driven by a three -horse -power engine, is said to be capable of lighting many hundreds of such lanterns, which Avill burn under water, and in mines as well as in the house. Should the claims made for it prove to be literally true, the cxxx GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND new light possesses many and decided advantages over coal- gas ; especially will this be manifested in the score of econ- omy, the cost of the electric light being, according to the in- ventor's statement, about one fifth that of ordinary coal-gas. Before leaving the subject of illumination, it w^ould not be amiss to call attention to the improvements made in the me- chanical details of the gas-works, and especially in the numer- ous endeavors whix;h have been made, with considerable show of success, to introduce machinery for charging and draw- ing the retorts. In this connection, the names of Somerville, Rowland, and Havens are esj^ecially deserving of mention. In the preparation of chlorine, the most noticeable innova- tion announced during the year just past is the new j^rocess of Mr.Weldonjin which magnesia is employed along with the manQ;anese. Within a short interval, quite a number of improved meth- ods for this purpose have been made public, some of which notably the first process of Mr. Weldon, those of Mr. Dea- con, and of M. Tessie du Mothay have already come quite extensively into use. For the sake of comparison, the accompanying brief de- scription of these recent advances may be of interest; for al- though, strictly speaking, only the one alluded to at the out- set received its first announcement during the past year, they have nearly all received more or less modification within that period, and may be appropriately alluded to in the rec- ord of progress for 18T3. The process of Du Mothay is designed to produce chlorine continuously from a given supply of manganese. This is ef- fected by passing a stream of hydrochloric-acid gas over a mixture of the binoxide of manganese and lime heated to low redness, and then, at the same temperature, passing a stream of air over the residue in the retorts, by which the chlorine in the manganese and calcium chlorides is liberated, and passed with the first product into chambers for the prepara- tion of bleaching lime. The revivification of the manganese peroxide, the chief feature of the process, is eftected by the presence of the atmosphere. There are no data at hand to enable us to determine how complete this regenerating proc- ess is found to be in practice. The process of Deacon consists in passing a mixture of hyr INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS DURING THE YEAR 1873. cxxxi drochloric-acid gas and air over pieces of clay impregnated with sulphate of copper, and heated to about 400 C. (752'' Fahr.). This method possesses several very advantageous features, and has been introduced into three or four of the largest English works, giving much satisfaction. The first of Weldon's processes consisted in passing air into the chloride of manganese solution, with' the addition of milk of lime. In his second method, which is the one alluded to at the outset, magnesia is employed along with the man- ganese, and, from a theoretical stand-point, is a perfect solu- tion of the problem. The following is the process in brief: Hydrochloric acid is allowed to act upon a mixture of mag- nesia and binoxide of manganese, generating chlorine, and leavins: behind a mixture of the chlorides of mao-nesia and manganese. This residue is evaporated to dryness, and heat- ed to a high heat in a current of air, by which treatment the chlorides are decomposed with the liberation of chlorine, and the magnesia and manganese again regenerated, to be treat- ed as before. It will be seen from this description that the process is a continuous one, the chlorine being generated by the use of hydrochloric acid and heat alone upon the magnesia and man- ganese mixture. This chlorine is derived from two sources the first portion, formed by the action of the acid upon the magnesia and binoxide of manganese, is pure ; the other, however, which is obtained from the evaporation and roast- ing of the two chlorides, and which forms by far the greater quantity, is diluted with air and nitrogen. Such dilution, for many purposes in the arts, is no disadvantage. It would be of value to know from those who have adopted this in- teresting plan how perfect the regeneration of tlie materials really is inasmuch as the experience in related operations (notably in the continuous j^roduction of oxygen gas) is not of a very encouraging character. Among the most interesting and important of the exhibits at the recent Exhibitions at Vienna and London, must be named the various articles fabricated of the new alloy, phos- phor-bronze, which is now attracting much attention on the part of machinists and manufacturers. The material in question owes its origin to the discovery some time since made by MM. Montefiore-Levi and Ktinzel, cxxxii GENERAL SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC AND that the density and toughness of ordmary bronze is notably increased by the addition to its composition of phosphorus (in the form of phosphor-copi^er). Since the first announce- ment of its claims, the material has been subjected to very thorough tests both under governmental and private direc- tion and Avith the most flattering results. It is claimed that by judiciously varying the proportion of phosphorus in the manufacture, an alloy of almost any desired quality can be produced, thus opening for it a field of great utility from the variety of its possible applications. Unlike other alloys, it can be remelted without serious de- terioration of quality, while heavy steel castings, when worn or broken, are comparatively worthless. A great variety of objects made of the material, on exhibition at the above- named cities and elsewhere, have been enumerated, of which we will only present some of the more interesting. It has been employed with advantage for the great bearings of the plates in general rolling-mills, and for conical gearing in uni- versal rolling-mills for which it is much superior to both cast iron and ordinary bronze. A just idea of its value may be formed from the fact that at the Vienna Exposition it ob- tained the following awards: In group 1 for cog-wheels, tuy- eres, and bearings the diploma of merit ; in group 7 for re- volvers and parts of harness the medal of progress ; and in group 12 for its application to guns, etc. the medal of merit. A great variety of objects hitherto made of iron or steel may with advantage be cast of phosphor-bronze, and in many cases only require to be polished to be ready for use ; in ad- dition to which they will not corrode. Its great fluidity, compactness, fine grain, and beautiful col- or, adapt it admirably for decorative work ; and the perfec- tion of the castings materially lessens the expense of subse- quent chasing and finishing. The Belgian government has adopted the phosphor-bronze for small arms, and for the harness-metal of its cavalry. From the brief space of time during which it has been before the mechanical world, no less than from the modifications of which its physical properties are susceptible by slight varia- tions in its constitution, it is fair to presume that the uses to which it may be advantageously applied have as yet by no means been fully recognized. ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY 187 3. A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. PROFESSOR HEIS'S STAR ATLAS. A NEW star atlas of high scientific and practical value has been recently published by Professor Heis, of Mtinster. This work consists of twelve sheets, and contains 5421 stars and nebulae i. e., all that are visible to the sharpest vision in the northern hemisphere. While 'in many respects similar to the standard atlas of Argelander (his Tlranometria A'^o?;a), it dif- fers, and is perhaps an improvement on it, in that it contains many more of the fainter stars, and especially that the Milky Way is skillfully delineated, with all its variations of outline and brightness. Such an atlas becomes invaluable to those who interest themselves in the recently developed department of meteoric astronomy. AMERICAN STAR CATALOGUE. The largest catalogue of stars ever prepared in America has been published by the United States Naval Observatory at Washington. This work embodies all the valuable observations made since the foundation of the observatory, in 1842, with the meridian instruments, consisting of the Avork of the well- known astronomers Coffin, Hubbard, Ferguson, Newcomb, Hall, Harkness, and Yarnall. Over fifteen years of labor have A 2 ANNUAL EECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. been devoted to it by Professor Yarnall and his assistants, and he has himself made nearly one half of the observations. The catalogue is based on over eighty thousand observations of more than ten thousand stars, many of them being quite faint, and in extreme southern latitudes, such as have never, or rarely, hitherto been observed. Professor Yarnall has made an elaborate comparison of his results with the position of the stars given in the Ameri- can Nautical Almanac^ and finds that but very small syste- matic differences exist. Americans will be pleased to wel- come this valuable addition to astronomical literature. AMATEUR ASTRONOMY IN AMERICA. Mr. C. W. Burnham, of Chicago, has communicated to the London Astronomical Society a list of eighty-one new double stars discovered by him. Mr. Burnham is an amateur astron- omer one of the few in this country who have succeeded in bringing their enthusiasm up to the " useful-work " point. He has consulted almost all the good modern catalogues of double stars in order to ascertain that those discovered by him to be double were not already recorded in the annals of astronomy. Chicago is to be congratulated that, amid her business and her losses, one of her citizens is able to apply his leisure to the j^ursuit of so ennobling a study. THE VARIABLE SIZE OF THE SUN. Secchi, the astronomer of Rome, has concluded, from cer- tain observations made during the past year, that he is justi- fied in affirming that there is a periodic variability in the size of the sun. The many startling revelations of science during the past ten years have j^repared the way for the acceptance of even this conclusion, though the observations on which Secchi founds his belief are as yet so few as to still leave room for some possible doubt on the subject. It would seem that the outer surface of the sun the photosphere as seen by us is a gaseous envelope in a state of continual and perhaps periodic change, such that the diameter of the solar orb, as measured by the aid of the telescope, is least in the region of the greatest spot activity that is, the solar equatorial belt does not bulge out as does that of the earth, but, on the contrary, the solar polar axis is the longest diameter of that A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 3 body. Tlie excess of the polar over the equatorial diameter is, however, a very small quantity, and may be referred either to tides in the photosphere or to the influence of the solar spots themselves. 3Iem. Soc. SpectroscopisU Italiani^ Sept. 9, 1872. SOLAR SPOTS AND PROTUBERANCES. Pere Secchi has lately presented to the French Academy a paper containing some new generalizations on the relations of the solar spots to the protuberances visible with the spec- troscope. He begins by referring to the small number of protuberances during the last four months, especially near the poles of the sun, where they were both few and faint. This diminution in the number of protuberances coincides with a diminution in the number of spots. He is led to the following conclusions respecting the relations between these two phenomena : 1. The regions of faculse and spots are richest in protuber- ances. 2. There are two kinds of protuberances: the one thin and feeble, spread out like our thin cirrus clouds in the atmos- phere ; the others, more dense, compact, and brilliant, having a thready structure, and a peculiar optical character. 3. The spectral analysis of this last class shows that their spectrum is very complicated, and that they contain a num- ber of substances, while the others show only the lines of hydrogen and the line D^. A careful study during two consecutive years of observa- tion has convinced Pere Secchi that it is these brilliant and complicated protuberances with which the spots are connect- ed. Two well-established and very general phenomena have confirmed this conclusion. First, although the hydrogen pro- tuberances are seen all around the solar disk, yet the spots are confined to a determinate region, from which it follows that a hydrogenic eruption can not produce a spot. Second, the brilliant eruptions with numerous metallic rays are con- fined to the latitudes of the spots. These two facts led him to suspect that the cause of the spots is connected with the spectral constitution of the protuberances. He therefore carefully noted all the eruptions having this character, which for brevity he calls metallic, and he found that whenever one 4 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. of these eruptions is seen on the eastern edge of the sun, a spot is sure to appear on the day following. This connection has been so uniform that for several months he has been able to predict the appearance of a spot by simple examination of tlie spectrum of the eruption. Afterward, by examining his older observations, he has found a hundred similar verifica- tions. In fact, it is hardly necessary to examine the spectrum of the eruption, its peculiar physical character being nearly as good. In the fiist jilace, the light of the jets exhibits a great brilliancy. The hydrogen ray C assumes a very deep and singular tint. The flames are very dense, terminating in sharp and often straight points; when bent back, they are very unstable, changing from one instant to another. The height of the jet is generally but not always considerable ; sometimes the jets are low, but very sharply terminated. From a comparison of these spectra with those of the spots, Secchi concludes that the spectrum of the metallic protuber- ances is the same with that of the spot, which on the edge of the sun appears by its direct rays, while on the disk the rays are reversed. The spots are produced by masses of metallic vapor bursting out from the interior of the sun. These va- pors need not rise to a great elevation ; it is suflicient if they rise above the general level of the photosphere. They then rest suspended and floating in the photosphere itself like islands, but being sunk to its level they look like cavities. These masses are of course coated, and therefore absorb the rays of light and heat, but the surrounding photosjDheric mass gradually encroaches upon and dissolves them. Secchi finally remarks that there are still some details to be explained which will require time to work up. He difiers completely from Faye, who attributes the spots to revolving storms or solar cyclones, stating that there are not more than five or six cases of spots showing a motion of revolution in the course of a year. SECCHI ON SOLAR PROTUBERANCES. The observations of solar protuberances by Secchi for the latter half of 1872 have been published, and form a very valuable contribution to what he styles " solar meteorology." The conclusions to which he has been led are thus epitomized: 1. The protuberances from August 13 to December 31, A. MATHEMATICS AJsD ASTRONOMY. 1872, embracino- five revolutions of the sun, have been less numerous than during the four preceding rotations, averag- ing respectively 159 and 261 per revolution. 2. There has been a corresponding diminution in the num- ber of the spots. 3. The jets inclined in the direction of the reigning solar current have been less numerous, many being in an opposite direction. 4. The number of jets turned toward the poles has been 292, that of those turned toward the equator 89, while 46 had a double inclination. Of the number 89, the greater part were within thirty degrees of the solar equator. Beyond thirty degrees the jets were almost exclusively turned toward the poles, and it is remarkable that the direction of these is opposed to that of the lower portions of the chromosphere. Secchi's conclusions resjardino; the connection between so- lar spots and protuberances are especially remarkable. After recountins: the results to which he was led some years as^o in regard to the regions rich in spots and protuberances, and in regard to the heavy metallic and the lighter gaseous jets, he proceeds to state that the metallic jets are those that are connected with the solar spots, and so intimate is this con- nection that whenever he detected the top of one as it came into sio'ht above the eastern limb of the sun, he has been able to safely predict the approaching solar spot at its base. The gaseous or hydrogen jets are not capable of producing spots. So familiar has Secchi become with the appearance of these phenomena that he is able, without the spectroscope, and by a simple examination of the physical appearance of the jets, to determine their nature. He finds in the recent observa- tions of Professor Young a complete confirmation of his ow^n view that the spectrum of the metallic protuberances is the spectrum of the interior of the solar spots, the lines being in the one case seen direct and bright, and in the other reversed and dark. On this principle Secchi founds his theory of the constitution and explanation of the phenomena of the solar spots, which are, in brief, according to him, but clouds of cooler metallic vapor pushed up through and floating above the solar photosphere. A more detailed explanation of his views is promised shortly. 6 ^, 1873, 251. 6 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. NOVEL RELATIONS AMONG THE PLANETS. At the recent meeting of the National Academy of Science, at Washington, a most eloquent and elaborate essay was read by Professor Stephen Alexander, the astronomer, of Prince- ton, New Jersey. Some twenty years ago Professor Alex- ander communicated to the scientific world an original class- ification of the nebulae, in w^hich, among other things, but by a different process of reasoning, he anticipated the recent conclusion of Proctor that our Milky Way is a spiral nebula. Since then Professor Alexander has been busily engaged on the plans and the erection of the magnificent observatory at Princeton, which the college owes to the munificence and sci- entific interest of General Halsted. Notwithstanding the heavy duties imposed upon him as a teacher. Professor Alex- ander, who is now the oldest of living American astronomers, has found time to engage in the laborious numerical compu- tations incident to one of the most difficult problems that of- fer themselves to the consideration of astronomers, while at the same time it is by far the grandest. This is nothing less than the discovery of those laws which governed the original formation of the universe, and especially of our planetary system. To this investigation Kepler gave many years of patient toil, and though he honestly threw away as too arti- ficial the many curious laws that he at one time thought he had discovered, yet there remained the so-called "Three Laws of Kepler " to challenge a Newton to find out their hidden meaning, and to reveal to him the truth of the law of gravi- tation. Next Bode found the famous relation between the radii of the planetary orbits, which contributed so much to the discovery of the planet Neptune, and of the group of as- teroids between Mars and Jupiter. Since Bode's day. Kirk- wood and Chase have worked with some success upon the planetary harmonics ; but, outstripping both in the exactness of his results, comes the veteran Alexander. It would be im- possible here to give even a small portion of the innumerable remarkable coincidences and verifications that have been re- vealed to the professor we say "revealed" advisedly, al- though it is evident that he has pursued a strictly logical, and in many cases a purely inductive, method in the dis- covery of the wonderful ratios that he has shown to exist not A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 7 only between the planetary motions, but also between those of the satellites. Among the twenty-five classes of facts supporting his the- ories, perhaps the explanation of the tilting of the planes of the orbits of Uranus's satellites, and of the axis of revolution of Venus, may be considered most surprising. If we consider these new ratios and novel relations to be the direct results of the physical forces that were active in the original forma- tion of the planetary system, then certainly the elaborate work of Alexander, in so far as it brings these ratios to our attention, must be considered as the most valuable step that has yet been made toward the discovery of the underlying physical laws. We can indeed most fully sympathize with the eloquence with wdiich he said : " I have not troubled you with the repetition of many, and perhaps foolish, things that the discoverer of these laws did and said, but when he saw this result " (alluding to the relations between Mercury and Venus) " there was a raising of the eyes to heaven and a clasping of the hands together, while the lips uttered, ' Glo- ry!'" . NEW ASTEKOIDS. Professor Peters, director of the Litchfield Observatory of Hamilton College, Clinton, Xew York, discovered on the night of February 17 a new asteroid, which is the one hun- dred and thirtieth of this group of bodies, and we believe the tw^entieth that has been discovered by Professor Peters. It will be remembered that, in order to at once follow up the discovery of a new^ member of this group of minute planets by numerous precise observations, an arrangement has been made with the telegraph companies by which the news is at once telegraphed to Europe. The present is the second oc- casion that the Smithsonian Institution has had for thus mak- ing use of the Atlantic cable. 4 Z>, Marcli^ 1873. THE MASS OF JUPITER. This important element of astronomical calculations has been quite recently determined by Professor Kruger, the di- rector of the observatory at Helsingfors. Kruger has sought to make a new and independent determination of the mass of this planet by investigating the effects of its attractions 8 ANNUAL BECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. upon the movements of the asteroid Themis. The result is singularly in accordance Avith those that have been hitherto accepted, and is based on all the observations made during the seventeen years 1853-1870, and gives the mass of Jupiter ^^ 1047.538 0.192 - '^^^^ rcsult rcccutly obtained by Muller from liis study of the movements of Faye's comet was 1047.788=1= 0.186. The most generally used by astronomers was long since determined by Bessel from observations of Jupiter's satellites, and is 1047.879d=0.159. 1 B, March 2, 1873. CHANGES ox JUPITEr's SUEFACE. Tacchini reports that, during January, 1873, he has ob- served quite remarkable changes in the appearance of the belts of Jupiter. The belts were no longer parallel to his equator as usual ; but from the equator southward were seen numerous brilliant white spots, and also many black spots surrounded by white. These, and other appearances, are evidently due to some peculiar alterations in the planet, and Tacchini calls upon all having good telescopes to give special attention to this planet. MOONS OF URANUS. Observations of the planet Uranus, at the Bothkamp Ob- servatory, in the spring of 1871, revealed occasionally, under favorable conditions, small stars near it, two of which certain- ly, and two others probably, were satellites. Their periods of revolution were fixed, by calculations of Vogel, at 13.462, 8.705, 4,15, and 2.54 days respectively. 19 f, November 23, 1872,383. WHITE APPEARANCES IN THE MOON. A writer in Nature suggests that the white telescopic ap- pearance in many parts of the moon's surface, resembling snow, may be really a coating of salt on extinct volcanoes of that satellite. The dazzling, snow-white efl?ect of the mountains is commented upon ; and it is thought that a clew to the phenomenon is furnished by the late eruptions of Mount Vesuvius. In this instance a crust of crystals of salt was formed over the entire surface of the lava on cooling. 12 A^ Ja7U(ari/ 16,1816,221. A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 9 PAPERS ON THE TRANSIT OF VENUS. Part II. of papers relating to the transit of Venus in 1874 has been published by the Navy Department, and is occu- pied principally by a series of charts and tables prepared by Mr. George W. Hill for facilitating the predictions of the several phases of the transit. It is accompanied by four charts representing the exterior and interior contact of both ingress and egress, full directions being given for using them. THE ORIGIN OF METEORS AND COMETS. Proctor has recently advanced an idea as to the origin of comets and meteors that may seem to be but the revival of an old opinion, and one supposed to have been exploded. The researches of Schiaparelli and ISTewton and others, in that they showed the meteors to be regular members of the solar system, seem to have temporarily satisfied the inquiry as to the remote origin of these bodies. The former astron- omer assumes them to exist generally throughout the inter- stellar spaces, and to be successively drawn to one and then to another sun, while Proctor reasons that these bodies are now found to travel in groups or streams, that it is difficult to conceive how our sun could draw a connected stream of meteors to itself at any given epoch, and that if these bodies were ejected from the self-luminous stars, we may with equal plausibility suppose similar bodies to have been ejected from the planets of our own system Avhen they were in a molten condition. He accordingly shows the very moderate degree of force required to eject a meteor from the surfiices of the outer planets, and examines the orbits of such periodical comets and meteors as are at present known. In accordance with the suggestion of A. S. Herschel, he deduces the inter- esting conclusion that the comets expelled from Jupiter would mostly have a direct motion, or one in the same direction as his own, w^hile those ejected from IsTeptune would be as likely to have a retrograde as a direct motion. Proctor concludes that many comets have sprung from Jupiter and Neptune, and at least one from Uranus the latter beins: the well-known November meteor stream, or the Leonides, which Hind has shown to be connected with Tempel's comet. 5 A, January^ 1873. A2 10 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. METEOEIC SHOWER OF NOVEMBER 27, 1872. The scientific journals of Europe contain copious accounts of the great meteoric shower on the evening of November 27, only the end of which was seen in this country. Professor Bruhns writes that at the Leipsic Observatory seven hundred meteors fell, in the south and southeast, in the course of thir- ty-five minutes. Between eight and nine o'clock an observer, looking north, counted at the rate of twenty per minute. About one out of six was as bright as a star of the first mag- nitude, and most of the remainder were between the second and third, only about one tliird of the whole being fainter than the third magnitude. The brighter ones were generally yellow, though sometimes green. The accounts from France and from all parts of Germany are of the same general nature ; but it seems that in Italy owing, perhaps, to the clearer sky the phenomenon appeared to better advantage. At the Observatory of Moncalieri thir- ty-three thousand meteors were counted in six hours, showing the shower to have been one of the most remarkable of recent times. BIELA's COMET IN ITS NEWEST ASPECT. On the evening of the 27th of November, 1872, Europeans were favored with a shower of falling stars, which has now become one of the most interesting of all on record. From the great shower of 1833 dates the revival of a more intelli- gent interest in the subject of shooting-stars, until at last the studies of Newton of New Haven, Weiss of Vienna, and Schi- aparelli of Milan have led to quite an exact knowledge of the nature of these bodies. When finally there could no longer be any doubt that some, if not all, of these meteors were re- lated in a peculiar and intimate manner to the comets, it be- came possible, in 1868, for Professor Weiss to state the prob- able connection between Biela's comet and the meteors that had been often observed about the first of December, and to predict that we should probably experience a star-shower in 1872 on passing near to that comet. The shower came as predicted it Avas well seen in the early evening twilight at stations in our Atlantic States, and was very brilliant in Eu- rope, A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. n This preliminary verification of the views of Professor Weiss was, however, not the most interesting circumstance. No sooner had Klinkerfues, of Gottingen, determined the appar- ent radiant point of the meteors, than he computed their orbit about the sun, and finding that they really moved in a path nearly coincident with that of Biela's comet, he proceeded to reason upon their probable future course. He states that he concluded that if the observed meteors radiated from the point observed by him, they must be moving toward the op- posite point of the sky, which was near the star Theta Cen- tauri, in the southern heavens, and that, if looked for soon enough, they might possibly be seen as a faint cloud in that region. The idea was sufiiciently bold, yet so interesting and novel that Professor Klinkerfues felt himself warranted in sending to the director of the observatory at Madras the following remarkable telegram : " Gottingen, November 30. Biela touched Earth on the 27th. Search near Theta Cen- tauri." With a faith equal to that of Galle, when he searched for and found the j^lanet Neptune predicted by Le Verrier, Pogson now turned his telescope upon the spot indicated, and, the third time of searching, at last beheld the comet as a very faint, difi'use spot of light. The observations of position made by Pogson, and now received by mail, have been subjected to a careful study by Oppolzer, of Vienna, and he concludes that there is every reason to believe this to be one of the two portions of Biela's comet, both of which have been lost to telescopic sight for twenty years. The other portion will very probably continue to elude the powers of theoretical astronomy to trace its path and discover its whereabouts, yet it is by no means improbable that it may be discovered by some of the many busy comet-hunters. It will be seen that the history of Biela's comet may be thus epitomized. It pursued an elliptic orbit, in obedience to the law of gravitation, until 1845, when it was by some unknown force divided into two portions. These were seen in 1853, by which time they had separated several millions of miles from each other. For twenty years they have not been again seen. Meantime the study of the shooting-stars taught us that the latter were often fragments or the minute components of comets. 12 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. The observations of the star-shower of 1872 (November 27) show that the earth then passed through a portion of a com- et, which must have been formerly a part of Biela's comet ; and finally, the same observations enabled the astronomer to predict and to discover the lost comet. The conclusion of the whole matter may be accepted by astronomers in the expression comets become star-showers when the earth passes through tliem, and showers of shoot- ing-stars are comets. It is not yet known that mankind re- ceived any harm from the events of November 27, 1872 ! ANOTHER COMETARY STAR SHOWER. Mr. Hind, superintendent of the British N^autical Almanac, appears to have added another to the known cases of the co- incidence of showers of shooting-stars with the passage of the earth near or through a comet. It will be remembered that the meteors of the 12th of November had already been sup- posed, with good reason, to be a portion of the first comet of 1866, or Tempel's comet, which had at some previous time become separated therefrom. Now, however, Mr. Hind has, with the assistance of Mr. Williams, the secretary of the Royal Astronomical Society, and an accomplished Chinese scholar, succeeded in tracino: the orbit of a comet observed in China in 1366, and in showing its probable connection with a great shower of meteors also observed in that country in October of the same year. The same comet was also observed in 868 both in Europe and China. The systematic re-appearance of the November meteors at intervals of about 33.3 years was first demonstrated by Pro- fessor Newton, of Yale College, who also thus gave the first clew to their real nature. Mr. Hind's research is valuable in adding not only another ancient date, as preserved in the chronicles of China, but especially in having ascertained the date at which Tempel's comet was seen both as a comet and as a star shower, very much as has recently happened to Bie- la's comet. Monthly Notices lioyal Astron. Soc. NEW THEORY OF THE AURORA. Professor Foster, of Bern, Switzerland, has lately devel- oped the new theory of the origin of the aurora as it had been propounded in London by Professor Glaisher in 1869. A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTKONOMY. 13 According to this theory, the aurora is the result of a second- ary or induced current of electricity, produced by sudden chano:es in the earth's masr-netic condition. The cause of the latter changes is not yet understood ; that they exist, how- ever, is abundantly proved by the automatic records of the observatory at Greenwich. Glaisher's theory assumes these changjes in the earth's condition as the cause of the atmos- pheric currents, and of the magnetic disturbances. The theory of De La Rive, which for years has been con- sidered the most plausible, on the contrary, considers the at- mospheric currents as the primary cause, and the terrestrial phenomena as the result. 3fittheil. naturforsch. Gesellschaft^ JJeime, 1811, 145. GROUND CURRENTS AND THE AURORA OF 1872. The journal of the London Society of Telegraph Engineers contains a very interesting summary of the phenomena of " srround currents," as observed in connection with the an- rora of 1872, February 4. Not only was this aurora one of the most remarkable of recent years, because of the wide ex- tent of its visibility, but it seems to have been attended with electrical disturbances that are, as yet, unparalleled in the annals of science for their intensity, if not for their duration and geographical extent. The above-mentioned journal gives a fac-simile of the automatic photographic records kept at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, during the day of the aurora, and from this the exact nature of the electrical disturbance may be deduced. It appears that all the telegraph lines of the world were more or less affected on the day in question, and. that all those running east and west, or nearly so, and especially the ocean cables, were rendered temporarily use- less for business purposes from the disturbance caused by these extraneous currents of electricity, which are supposed to enter the line via the earth plate, or ground connection at each end of the line, and. which either overpower or partially mask the effects produced by the current let on from a gal- vanic battery by the operator in the ordinary course of send- ing dispatches. The origin of the currents thus flowing through the telegraph wires or cables from one continent to the other is, so far, quite unknown, and though several hy- potheses seem plausible, yet there are still wanting those 14 ANNUAL EECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. accurate observations on which to base a correct explanation. The Greenwich records show the current to have produced effects similar to those resulting- by a zinc current flowing from the east or northeast to the west or southwest. The observations on the Red Sea cable showed the stronir- est current to have equaled that produced by one hundred and seventy Daniell's cells. On the Persian Gulf cable and the Atlantic cable the ground currents were equal to eighty Minotti cells. It would possibly be to the advantage of all concerned in telegraphy if systematic study, on an extended scale, of these earth currents could be instituted. The thor- ough understanding of the subject would doubtless lead to the invention of some method of ameliorating the disturbing effects of these currents on the business of the various com- panies. . EEOKGANIZATION OF FEENCII OBSERYATOEIES. A decree of February IV, 1873, on the part of the French government, reorganizes the Paris Observatory, and places it upon a basis of extended usefulness. This establishment is one of the most important of its class in the world, and has always gathered to itself a large share of the attention of astronomers. For many years it was directed by Profess- or Le Verrier, who, however, was accused of administering it in an arbitrary and harsh manner, and to the injury of the reputation of himself and his subordinates, and he was ac- cordingly displaced some years ago, and Professor Delauney established in his stead. The new incumbent did not enjoy his honors very long, as he w^as drowned in the summer of 1872, by the upsetting of a boat, on the coast of France. No formal appointment of a direc1;or was made immediately after the death of Delauney, occasion being taken by the gov- ernment to refer the whole subject to a commission, whose report is made the basis of the decree referred to. This pro- vides that the astronomical personnel shall be dependent upon the Minister of Public Instruction, and shall consist of titular astronomers, adjunct astronomers, and assistant astronomers, these to be distributed among the different observatories, with especial reference to their fitness for their several posi- tions. The Observatory of Paris is to have an astronomical direc- A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 15 tor, six titular astronomers, ten adjunct astronomers, and a certain number of assistant astronomers, together with a sec- retary and a financial agent. The general operations of the observatory, however, are to be controlled by a scientific council, consisting of the director, certain chief astronomers, and six counselors of the observatory chosen among the sa- vants eminent for their labors in mathematical, astronomical, and physical science, and four of them, at least, to belong to the Academy of Sciences or to the Bureau of Longitudes. Each year one of these goes out of office, but may be rechosen by the minister. The higher officers of the observatory are to be appointed by the President of the republic, on the nom- ination of the minister and with the advice of the General Assembly; the lower grades are appointed by the minister, on the nomination of the director. The annual salaries of the titular astronomers vary from six to eight thousand, francs, those of the adjunct astronomers from thirty-five hundred to six thousand, and of the assist- ants from one thousand to thirty-five hundred. The person- nel of the Observatory of Paris is named in the decree of the same date. Professor LeVerrier being again placed at the head. His functions, however, as far as concerns the control of the force, are limited, and largely dependent upon the consent of the council of the observatory. M. Stephan is named as di- rector at Marseilles, and M. Marie-Davy director of the Mete- orological Observatory at Montsouris. 3 ^, February 20, 1873,297. THE CINCINNATI OBSERVATORY. The Cincinnati Observatory, founded by Professor O. M. Mitchell, is, we learn, to be removed, and established in a manner Avorthy the wealth of Cincinnati. From the draw- ings that we have been permitted to see, it may be judged that the dome of the new building will be thirty-five feet in diameter in the inside, or the largest in the world. Of course such a structure will be too expensive to be made a play- thing ; and, if the telescope be proportionately large, Cincin- nati may yet rival Washington in its superiority. We understand from Professor Abbe, of the Weather Bu- reau of the Army Signal-office, who, it will be remembered, continued until lately to be the director of the observatory 16 ANNUAL KECOKD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. at Cincinnati, that in 1871 the Astronomical Society, in con- junction with the heirs of Nicholas Longworth, presented to that city the former valuable site on Mount Adams, as well as the instruments and library of the original observatory, on condition that the city agree to maintain the institution for scientific purposes, and in some new and appropriate location. The new site was highly approved of by Professor Abbe, and Avas donated by John Kilgour, Esq., who also added thereto the sum often thousand dollars to provide for the new build- ino-. this beinir an element in the improvement of a lars^e area of land that he has laid out as a beautiful suburban park. The observatory is now under the control of the Board of Trustees of the University of Cincinnati, a body of about twenty men, who are authorized to mould into a homogene- ous institution the numerous bequests that the city has re- ceived at various times for educational purposes. COLUMBIA COLLEGE OBSERVATORY. From a recent communication in Cap and Goioi, we learn that there has been erected a small observatory on the Co- lumbia College campus for educational and, we hope, also for scientific purposes. The observatory is furnished with an equatorial, accompanied by a seven-prism spectroscope, by Clark, and a position micrometer, besides an altazimuth and a zenith telescope. REGULATIOX OF TIME BY OBSERVATORIES. During the past few years inconveniences arising from the constant changes of local time, and the conflicting errors of local clocks on connecting railroads, have been felt with in- creasing frequency by the traveling public, and still more by the roads themselves. The aid of astronomical science has been lately invoked by some of the leading railroads, and several observatories have been requested to furnish exact time by the telegraph ; but to how very great an extent abstract science has been thus already utilized few even of those who benefit by it are per- haps aware. From an article by Professor Langley, in the November number of Silliman^s Journal^ describing the system intro- duced at the Alleghany (Pittsburgh) Observatory, we learn A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. .. 17 that the exact time is thence daily distributed by electricity over some thousand miles of main and branch roads by a purely automatic process. For technical details the article cited may be referred to ; and we briefly state that continu- ous lines of telegraph, which extend from New York on the east, and Chicago on the west, are carried into the observa- tory, at Pittsburgh, where the wires terminate in its principal mean-time standard clock, which is made to send an electric impulse through them with every swing of its pendulum. An audible sound is thus made simultaneously at every sta- tion on the Southern lines connecting New York with the West, and a clock regulated with astronomical exactness is thus virtually to be heard ticking in JSTew York and Chicago, and at hundreds of intermediate points, at the same instant. The means employed are here alluded to, however, less in connection with the abstract interest of the method itself than to that of the practical and economical results which are secured by such uniformity and exactness, hitherto gen- erally unattained. Among the competing lines for the im- mense amount of railway freight which passes between the East and West, those which can be run with a regularity most like clock-work will be the fovored ones ; but this es- sential benefit, growing out of such a system of time distri- bution, is still second to its utility as a security against ac- cident, and for the preservation of human life. The special apparatus of the observatory devoted to these ends is the gift of W. Shaw, Esq., of Pittsburgh ; but a recog- nition is due to the intelligent policy which has led the man- agers of these roads to avail themselves of scientific help so extensively in promoting both the safety of passengers and the rapidity and economy of transportation. NEW OBSERVATORY AT TASHKEND. An astronomical and meteorological observatory is about to be erected by the Russian government at Tashkend, in Central Asia, about 100 miles northwest of Khokan. 12 A^ Novemher 25, 1872, 71. NEW TABLES OF URANUS. Professor Newcomb's New Tables of the Motions of Ura- miSy which were prepared at the expense of the Smithsonian 18 , ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. Institution, have lately been published by it. The first record- ed observation of Uranus was made by Flamstead in 1690, who, however, considered the star as fixed. It was Sir William. Herschel who, by the power of his telescopes, first saw its planetary disk, and by its movements proved it to be really a member of the solar system. The observed movements of Uranus, however, differed to so great a degree from those predicted by the theory of gravitation, that a certain mystery hung about it until Le Verrier in France and Adams in En- gland showed that the planet w^as subject to the attraction of a more distant planetary body, whose position these geome- ters predicted with sufiicient accuracy to allow of the actual discovery of the new planet, Neptune. Professor Newcomb has already, by using all known observations of Neptune, compiled the very accurate tables for computing the motions of that planet that have been used in the American Nautical Almanac. Having thus provided for the most distant mem- ber of our system, he has now returned to Uranus, and finds that his present tables (which will comj^lete the survey of the solar system) represent quite completeljr the hitherto in- explicable movements of that body. There remains, there- fore, but slight prospect that there exists a still more distant undiscovered planet of any considerable mass. TELEGEAPHIC LONGITUDES IX SOUTH AMERICA. The use of electricity in determining geographical longi- tudes keeps rapid pace with the continual extension of tele- graph lines and cables over the w^orld. We lately chronicled the third determination of the diiFerence of longitude be- tween Washington and Greenwich, which datum, so highly important to astronomy, may now be considered as known to within the twentieth part of a second of time. The union of London with Teheran, Persia, and through it with Madras, India, was completed in the latter part of 1871, and a tele- graphic circuit of 3870 miles of wire w^as used in the longi- tude determination. The lono-itude of San Francisco from Washington has been determined over a circuit of 3000 miles by the astronomers of the Coast Survey. The net-work thus gradually girdling the northern hemisphere now begins to be supplemented b)^ the detached portions of what may at some distant day become the connected links of a similar series of A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 19 longitudes in the southern hemisphere. In Southern Africa and in Australia the telegraph lines already offer facilities for most extensive geograjihical operations ; but we believe the principle work that has as yet been done in the southern hemisphere has been recently effected by Dr. Gould, the di- rector of the National Observatory at Cordoba. During the past year he has made such determinations between his own central observatory and the cities of Buenos Ayres and Ro- sario to the eastward. As the result of this work, he announ- ces an error of one minute of time in the relative longitude of these places as given on the best maps. Preparations have also been made for longitude work between Cordoba and Santiago de Chili, but the accounts of the results of this w^ork have not yet been received. NEW LIVERPOOL OBSEEVATOEY. One of the most important services that astronomy has rendered to mankind consists in the contributions it has made to the progress of navigation, and th6 increased se- curity of life and property. In this field England has always taken the lead, and the efforts of Mr. Ilartnup at Liverpool are a w^orthy continuation of the labors of Flamstead, Brad- ley, and Airy. While the Greenwich Observatory has caused a great improvement in the general standard of the chro- nometers bought for the use of the government vessels, Mr. Hartnup has sought to effect a similar reform for the mer- cantile marine. He has insisted on the vital importance to ship-masters, as well as to owners and insurance companies, of the careful determination of the rates of their chronome- ters as affected by temperature. The makers of these in- struments, and the astronomers who use them carefully, have always known that which captains of vessels have been very slow to profit by ^. e., that the chronometers are, when made, so adjusted that they keep perfect time at two tem- peratures, such as 55 and' 85 Fahr., while between these limits they gain, and beyond them they lose, on the true time. It is rare that this variation in the chronometer rate can be safely overlooked by a careful navigator, though it is fre- quently done by those whose vessels do not cany a pre- cious burden of one or two thousand souls. The only excuse for this neglect is the positive assurance of the maker that 20 ANNUAL EECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. the chronometer is perfectly reliable an assurance that is often fortified by very deceitful figures. The difficulty and expense of a searching investigation into the errors to which every chronometer is liable have long been supposed by the trade to stand in the way of the introduction of such chro- nometers only as were of approved reliability. In order to obviate the difficulty as far as possible, the Liverpool Observ- atory has been constructed by Mr. Hartnup specially for the purpose of studying the rates of the chronometers that may be sent thither by captains sailing from that port. The expense of the examination given to such chronometers is comparatively trifling ; and the number of chronometers sub- mitted to him has annually increased, until, by reason of the recent regulations at that port, the number of examinations has amounted to between one and two thousand annuallv, the same instruments having been repeatedly submitted to him. The process pursued by Mr. Hartnup consists in ex- posing each chronometer for a week to a uniform tempera- ture of 55, an'd determining its rate each day; it is then for another week exposed to a temperature of 70, and then to one of 85 ; the next week it is returned to the temperature of 70, and the last or fifth week it is exposed to the tem- perature of 55, as at first. By means of general laws regu- lating the rates of chronometers, it is now possible to deter- mine what the rate will be at other temperatures than the three above mentioned, and, knowing these, the navigator is able to apply the proper correction to his time-keeper so ex- actly that he need never mistake his position upon the ocean. The records of the Liverpool Observatory for the past year show 1. That the rates of about ten per cent, of chronome- ters tested (those of the mercantile marine very generally have the ordinary compensation balance) are so irregular as to render the instruments entirely unfit for nautical purposes. 2. The error of adjustment for temperature of the remaining ninety per cent, is often so erroneous as to produce a change of daily rate of many seconc^s, when the temperature varies but little from either of the two standard points of 55 and 85, or thereabouts. 3. That the best-made and most care- fully adjusted instruments gain, on the average, daily six tenths of a second more at a temperature of 70 than at 55 or 85. 4. That those that have the same rate at 55 and A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 21 VO'', or at 70 and 85, lose when exposed to temperatures beyond these limits at the rate of 1.5 seconds daily for a change of fifteen degrees in temperature. 5. That when the connection between temperature and daily rate has been well determined, it will remain constant in good instruments for a long time, which need in general to be examined only once in one, two, or three years. The vital importance of this subject to the interest of safe, speedy navigation, will be impressed upon every one by the disaster that befell the Atlantic, consequent upon being some twenty miles (or ninety seconds of time) out in her reckon- ing- KEPORT OF THE ALLEGHANY OBSEEVATOEY. Professor Langley, as director of the Alleghany University, at Pittsburgh, in his report recently published refers w^ith sat- isfaction to the recovery of the fine object-glass of the tele- scope of the university, which was stolen on the 8th of July, 1872. When recovered it was somewhat scratched, and was placed in the hands of Messrs. A. Clark & Sons, w^ho succeeded in restoring it nearly to its pristine condition. The observa- tory has been very active during the year, both in a utilitarian and a purely scientific point of view. One of its labors con- sisted in a connection with Austin, Texas, by a telegraphic circuit of about three thousand miles, for the purpose of de- termining, with the co-operation of the Cambridge Observa- tory, the longitude of that point, so that it might serve as a base for the future settlement of western longitudes. The observatory has also been constantly employed in fur- nishing time signals to the lines of railroads that pass through Pittsburgh, these beirig sent at all hours of day and night to Harrisburg, Philadelphia, New York, and many other points in the East and West as far as Chicago. The entire move- ment of freight and passenger traffic over this great system of roads is now regulated by a single clock at the Alleghany Observatory, which may thus be considered as having its beats rendered audible at every railroad and telegraph office on the routes named. In addition to this class of labor, extensive observations have been made with a zenith telescope, and remeasurements of the longitude sheets of 1869, while observations have been 22 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. made with a meridian instrument nearly every fair night in the year with the aid of the chronograph. Professor Langley expects his establishment to be more and more confined in the future to the duties of a physical observatory, and occupied less with the cataloguing of the stars than with the study of the physical constitution of the heavenly bodies, especially that of the sun. CEBIT OF JUPITEK. Le Verrier announces that having considered, in Chapter XVIII. of his Astronomical Researches^ the inequalities of Jupiter and Saturn in so far as they mutually depend on each other, and in Chapter XIX. the secular variations of the ele- ments of the orbits of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, he now presents to the Academy of Sciences at Paris the complete theory of the motion of Jupiter, constituting Chap- ter XX. of hisi?6searcAes. 6 B, 1873, 678. newcomb's catalogue cf fundamental staes. The United States Xaval Observatory has published, as an appendix to the volume of Washington observations for 1870, a recent research by Professor Newcomb, resulting in a catalogue of the positions of thirty-two fundamental stars. This work is specially interesting as giving the first published results arrived at by Auwers, of Berlin, in his new reduction of the invaluable observations made by Bradley, at Green- wich, in the middle of the last century. The right ascensions adopted by Newcomb depend especially on the meridian ob- servations made at Greenwich, Palermo, Konigsberg, Dorpat, Abo, Poulkova, and Washington, in which selection is recog- nized a wise discrimination in favor of using only the work of the acknowledged standard meridian instruments. The object of the investigation of Professor Newcomb has been especially to obtain results as free as joossible from any pe- riodic or systematic error, and he has handled his material in an original manner. Having newer and, in some respects, far better data than that used by Dr. Gould in compiling his standard right ascensions. Professor Newcomb's results will probably be accepted as of the highest value. The memoir concludes with full tables of the mean places of the stars for each fifth vear from 1750 to 1900. A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 23 ABSOEPTIOX OF THE SOLAR ATMOSPHERE. Dr. H. C.Vogel, the director of the private observatory of Herr von Btilow, at Bothkamp, has made a first attempt to accurately determine the relative chemical intensity of the solar rays from different points of the sun's disk. His results, though only preliminary, show that the sun's atmosphere ab- sorbs the chemical rays more rapidly than the visual rays, or, more accurately, that the relative action on silver chloride of the rays that reach us from the sun's limb, as compared with that of those that come from the centre of his disk, is- less than their relative action on the optic nerve. The rays from the sun's limb have a photograj^hic intensity of only fourteen per cent, of those from the centre. The intensity diminishes as we proceed toward the limb very nearly as the sine of the distance from the centre. Yogel especially sug- gests the importance of determining for the solar atmosphere its transparency to special spectral lines, as by applying the above method of study we may be able to arrive at a direct determination of the solar atmospheric absorption j^recisely as is done for the earth's atmosphere. Sachsc. Gesellschaft, 1872. ^__ MEASUREMENT OF AN ARC OF THE MERIDIAN. . In Ocean HigJitcays we find a notice of the great w^oi'k un- dertaken in the way of measuring a segment of the meridian in the centre of Europe, and of obtaining by these measure- ments a European meter, with the co-operation of all the states. A congress was lately held at Vienna with special reference to this object, at which all the European states were represented, witli the exception of England and France. Adopting for the European measure of length the meter which Vice- Admiral Mathieu and his commission had already fixed, it was decided to beofin the measurement of a central Eu- ropean segment of a meridian having its northern end at Christiania and its southern end at Palermo. Six French commissioners are to assist in the work of the congress, two of them chosen by the War Department, two by the Paris Observatojy, and two by the Academy of Sciences. A correspondent of the same journal strongly urges upon the English government to unite with all the other European 24 ANNUAL llECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. governuients in this geodesic congress, especially in view of the fact that the geodesy of England needs to be united with that of Europe across the Channel. 6 A, Jul^, 1873, 176. LOGAEITHMIC TABLES. Mr. Glaisher has contributed a number of interesting: arti- cles on the history of the published tables of the logarithms, from which we make a few extracts. The system of logarithms now most commonly used was invented by Briggs, and differs somewhat from those pro- posed by Napier, the original inventor of this ingenious de- vice. Briggs published a small table of logarithms in 1617, and a larger one in 1624, in which latter are given, to ten places of tlecimals, the logarithms of all numbers from one to ten thousand, and from seventy thousand to one hundred thousand. In 1628,Vlacq published in Holland a similar ten-place logarithmic table of all numbers from one to one liundred thousand, in which the portion from ten thousand to seventy thousand is given as computed by himself, the remaining portion being taken from Briggs' table. These great works of Briggs and Ylacq have now for two hundred and fifty years been of daily use among mathematicians, as- tronomers, navigators, surveyors, and all others who have oc- casion-to use logarithmic tables; for it appears from Mr. Glaisher's very careful bibliography that of all the innumera- ble smaller logarithmic tables that have been published, not a single one has been computed anew, all being merely ab- breviations of the great works of Briggs and Vlacq. One of the most curious facts brouo'ht out in the course of Mr. Glaisher's studies is the slow successive approach to ab- solute accuracy. Taking the seven-figure logarithmic tables, for instance, we find that in Vlacq one hundred and twenty- three errors occur, affecting the first seven out of the ten places of decimals given by him. Taylor's seven-figure ta- bles, published in 1792, contain six errors; in 1794, the first edition of Vega had twenty-three errors; the second edition, in 1797, had five errors; the tables of Babbage, in 1827, one; Hasler, in 1830, two ; Callet, in 1855, two ; Bremiker, in 1857, none ; Schoon, in 1860, none ; Callet, in 1862, none.. Mr. Glaisher, with much force, urges the propriety of the publication by some permanent society, or some other high A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTKONOMY. 25 authority in science, of a new edition of the ten-figure loga- rithmic tables of Vlacq. He maintains that the business in- terests of trade have to some extent caused this interval of two hundred and fifty years to elapse between the original imperfect and the present perfect set of tables, and that per- fection in these matters can only be attained by the action of a permanent scientific or national authority, which shall conscientiously publish, from time to time, such errors as may be discovered in the new tables. 3Ionthly Notices Roy.Ast. /S'oc.,1873. IMPOKTANT ASTKONOMICAL DISCOVERY. A discovery, which, if confirmed, is one of the most im- portant of the year, is announced from the Poulkova Observa- tory. It is that of a minute companion to the bright star Procyon. It derives its importance from being supposed to be the body whose attraction has caused certain irregularities in the motion of Procyon which have been known to exist for several years. This discovery is so near a counterpart to a similar one made in the case of Sirius, that it may not be uninteresting to narrate some circumstances connected with and growing out of the latter. It has been known for about forty years that the well- known star Sirius, the brightest in the heavens, was subject to an oscillating motion which could be accounted for by supposing a satellite moving around it. The orbit of the satellite was calculated by Peters and Auwers, though no one had ever seen it. But when Alvan Clark & Sons, of Cambridge, completed their great object-glass of eighteen inches' diameter in 1862, they turned it on Sirius, and saw a satellite, which, as it afterward proved, was in the direction of that suspected. Its motion has since corresponded so nearly with that of the calculated body as to leave no serious doubt of their identity. For this discovery, as well as for making the telescope, Alvan Clark received the La Lande medal from the French Academy of Sciences in the year followino;. It was afterward found, by the very profound and minute investigations of Dr. Auwers, that the movements of Procyon could be accounted for by the attraction of a satellite re- volving round it in forty years. There could be no doubt B 26 ANNUAL KECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. of the actual existence of the satellite; but whether any tele- scope would ever show it could not be settled except by trial. When, in 1870, Professor ISTewcomb negotiated the contract, for the great Washington telescope with Messrs. Clark, he advised them that their first duty with the new object-glass would be to discover this satellite. But while the object- glass was being finished last summer and autumn, the star was not in a position in which the trial tube could be pointed at it during the night ; and, after its position was improved, the Clarks were too busy in finishing the iron and brass work of the telescope, and too fearful of risking tlic glass by carry- ing it about, to point it at any thing. Meanwhile it is likely that Struve had heard of the inten- tion of the Washington astronomer to make the discovery of the satellite in question the first test of the new telescope when it should be mounted, and therefore determined to see if he could not anticipate the discovery with his own smaller glass. On the 29th of March last he w^as successful so far as to find a satellite in the direction of that predicted ; and, we remark, direction alone, and not distance, can be predicted in such a case. It must now be determined whether it is moving around the bright star in the proper way a ques- tion which the Washington telescope, if successfully mounted, will speedily settle. THE ERUPTION OF VESUVIUS. Palmieri, the famous investigator of the volcanic phenom- ena of Vesuvius, has just written to the Paris Academy of Sciences, through Monsieur St. Claire Deville, that since the publication of the work compiled by him on the phenomena of the recent eruption of Vesuvius, "I have made a great number of spectroscopic researches upon the vapors of the so- called fumaroles, or little vents, and I have found in most of them the presence of thallium; and I have also found in these vajoors other products and substances quite rare at Vesuvius amoncT them boracic acid. Other substances that I have found are mentioned in a printed memoir, where is also given a confirmation of some of your observations, especi- ally on carbonic acid gas. Since the last great eruption of 1872, Vesuvius has gradually attained a state of extraor- dinary repose. On the bgrders of the ciater and its interior A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 27 are some fumaroles still active, but for some months most of these have disappeared, and at present the vapor comes and goes abundantly only from the base of the crater, where the vertical depth is about seven hundred and fifty feet. The instruments of the observatory on Mount Vesuvius, the seismograph and the magnetic apparatus, after the violent agitation that they experienced in the month of April last, have little by little come to an absolute rest; but to-day (early in July, 1873) they commence to be feebly agitated in such a vray that the phenomena seem after a period of degrees about to increase in intensity, but fire has not yet appeared in the interior of the crater." " In remarking on the above, St. Claire Deville adds that, con- forming to the thought that seems to inspire the last phrase of the letter, he is disposed to admit that the approach- ing period of activity that will probably be experienced by the volcano will be that which he calls the "Strombo- lian," and which consists in small eruptions, which will pro- ceed from the centre of the crater at the summit of the mountain. This will be a repetition of the phenomena of July, 1856, one year after the great eruj^tion of 1855, and which he was able to predict in advance. Monsieur Elie de Beaumont observed that the labors of Deville have inaugu- rated a new manner of studying volcanic j^henomena, and a new special method of observing them ; they compare wor- thily with those that Boussingault has so happily executed in order to determine the volatile products of the great volca- noes of the Andes, being himself inspired by the first trials, made long ago by Sir Humphrey Davy. That vigilant ob- server of Vesuvius, Palmieri, has also entered this path of re- search, following Fouque in his researches on Etna, Santorin, and the Caldeiras of the Azores, Avhose researches were lately published in the Com2)tes Rendus^ in a memoir replete w^ith in- terest. The employment of the spectroscope gives to the new school of Vulcanologists an instrument the power of which is equal to its delicacy, and which in the hands of Palmieri, has already furnished valuable results. The presence in the sublimations of the fumaroles of Vesuvius of the metal thal- lium, which was lately obtained by Lamy from certain pyritic formations of Belgium, and other countries of Europe, con- firms in an unexpected manner the relations already indi- 28 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. cated between the volcanic emanations and the metalliferous strata that have been introduced (injected?) into the crust of the earth. The presence of boric acid, now established among the products of Vesuvius, bears directly on the con- nection already suspected between the volcanoes of Central Italy and the hot springs of Tuscany, the products of which latter, concentrated in the lagoons, form one of the principal deposits of borax at present resorted to for that article. 6 i?, 1873, 361. ROTATION OF THE EARTH ON ITS AXIS. It is tvell known that the astonishing accuracy attained by Struve in his observations with the jDrime vertical transit, and the remarkable agreement of the results obtained by him in his determination with it of the so-called constant of aberration, led him to hope for a similarly happy result in the application of the same astronomical instrument to the determination of the nutation. Struve contemplated the fre- quent observation of three well-selected stars during a space of nineteen years, in order to follow the nutation of the earth's axis through all its changes. His death, indeed, pre- vented the perfect accomplishment of this tedious work ; but the observations that he did make run through a period of fifteen years, and have been supplemented by those of the other astronomers at the Imperial Observatory of Russia, so that the nutation has lately been deduced from these ob- servations, with all desirable accuracy, by Dr. M. Nyren. "Without doubt," says Dr. Nyren, "we have here the most accurate series of observations of so great an extent that- as yet exists." The probable error of a single determination of the zenith distance of a star amounts to but 0.1". The ac- curacy of this long series of observations has led Nyren to not only develop anew the mathematical principles respect- ing the movements of the earth's axis in space, in which he introduces such slisfht refinements as have been su2ro:ested by the progress of science since the appearance of the classic- al works of Dr. C. A. F. Peters, but also to attempt a solu- tion of a problem first proposed by Euler, who demonstrated that if the earth's axis of rotation does not correspond to the axis of greatest moment of inertia, then it will not be fixed in reference to the earth's solid bodv, but will describe a small A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 29 circle about a line very nearly coinciding with the principal axis of inertia. By this movement, the latitudes of places are all subject to a slight periodic change. Peters had de- duced from his observations with the Poulkova vertical cir- cle the extent of this periodicity, and he concluded the ra- dius of the circle described by the North Pole to be 0. 0*79", and the period of this revolution to be about ten months. Nyren finds the same period of about ten months, but for the radius of the circle 0.040". He does not, however, consider it proper to dwell upon this small quantity as having a real existence, notwithstanding the remarkably small probable error attach- ed to it ; for he shows by the study of all the earlier obser- vations of Struve, with the same instrument, that these give larger, and, indeed, too large values to the same quantity -and that, further, in the careful study of the individual discord- ances, we find certain indubitable evidences of the existence of constant sources of error, which, whether they consist in irreo'ular refractions or in changjes within the interior of the earth, must be further investigated before we can safely as- sume the certainty of a real periodic variation in the ter- restrial latitudes. Nyren seems inclined to believe that the origin of these apparent periodic changes lies in the system- atic influence of the sun's heat on the buildings, and that this was in great part removed by a screen erected by Struve on the second year after he began his observations. But, on comparing his own results with those of Peters, made with an entirely different instrument, he is forced to conclude that their agreement is such as to show that the real existence of a variation in the earth's axis is very possible, though he hesitates to say that it is certain or even possible. The caution with which Nyren announces his conclusion is cer- tainly worthy of the scientist, and will doubtless lead others to make further examination of this interesting point. He, himself, and Mr. Wagner have, indeed, already begun such a series of observations with the same fine instrument with which Struve undertook to determine the annual parallax of certain stars. Nyren expresses himself as decidedly as the results of his study allow him to do, to the effect that the par- allax can not be deduced from those observations, as all the stars give negative or imaginary values for it, and. we can only conclude that the observations are affected by some un- 30 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. known influence which goes through its period in nearly a year. The main result of Nyren's investigation, namely, for the constant of nutation, the value 9.2365", is so nearly the same as that of Peters' published in 1842, that it is not likely that the value which is now in use will be discarded, for the present at least. GREAT NEBULA IN ARGUS. The interest in the study of nebulte, which received so strong an impetus by the construction of the great reflectors of Herschel and others, continues to be fostered by the per- petual attention given to those bodies by the possessors of the giant refractors and reflectors of the present day. Per- haps no celestial object, except the sun, has been during the past few years examined with more interest than the great nebula surrounding Eta Argus. This nebula was first care- fully examined by Sir John Herschel, in 1834 to 1839, when it was quite invisible to the naked eye, and his drawings and descriptions contain our first exact knowledge of this object, which can only be well seen from the extreme southern ob- servatories. No special drawing seems to have been made by other astronomers until 1862, when Mr. Abbott, an am- ateur residing at Hobart-Town, Tasmania, made drawings, which he has since then frequently verified and repeated ; and in 1865 he announced the fact that great changes had taken place and were in progress in this nebula. So unex- pected and novel were the ideas thus promulgated that they found very few adherents, the more so as Mr. Abbott was lit- tle known, and his telescope was of but moderate power. Indeed, a very unpleasant and uncalled-for feeling arose, as if Mr. Abbott had questioned the accuracy of Herschel's elab- orate drawings, which he in nowise did. In the midst of this discussion there arrived at Melbourne the magnificent four-foot reflector that had given such perfect satisfaction in England at its trial, and of whose powers so much was to be expected. The result of the examination o^ Eta Argus was in the highest degree disappointing, which may have been partly owing to a deterioration of the reflecting surface of the great mirror, and probably was also somewhat due to the peculiarities of the atmosphere of Melbourne and to the inex- perience of the observers. Indeed, Mr. Abbott, who visited A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 31 Melbourne for the special purpose, states that he was much surprised himself on seeing Eta Argus in such a small field of view with so larije an instrument, whence Ave infer that it had appeared very different when viewed through his own telescope. The drawings of Lieutenant A. S. Herschel, made at Bangalore in 1868, and the report of Le Sueur, the first ob- server in charge of the Melbourne telescope, in 1871, seemed to further complicate the question of the reality of a change in the nebula. But the present observer at Melbourne, Mr. M'George, the director, Mr. Ellery, and also the government astronomer of New South Wales, Mr. Russell, have each made drawings of the nebula, and these, with the drawings of Mr. Abbott, made in 1871, fully establish the existence of o-reat chanfjes, as follows : 1. The brightness of the nebula has increased so much that it has become visible to the naked eye. 2. The bright star Eta Argus is now thrown upon a darker background, instead of being in the brightest part of the nebula. 3. Numerous stars are now present which were not before visible. 4. The brightness of a number of stars, that were before much fainter than the principal star, has increased. Mr. Abbott states that in the same field of view with Eta Argus there are now twenty-four stars of the sixth, seventh, and eiirhth maccnitudes, and an immense number of fainter ones. The most recent communication by Mr. Abbott on this subject summarizes the results of his observations as fol- lows : In the eye draft of the object Eta Argus^ February, 1873, the principal stars appear to have retained their relative position as shown in the drawings of last year. The dark spaces are extending and becoming more undefined, gradually filling up with small stars, of which there are now fully half as many more as Avere shown in last year's drawing. The Avhole field of the telescope when directed to Eta Ar- gus is studded with stars, from the seventh to the tenth mag- nitude, too numerous to count. In all probability before long photography Avill be applied to this and other portions of the dense nebula. Monthly Not. Hoy. /Soc. of Tasmania. schroeter's observations of mars. Terby, in some researches on the physical changes in the planets of the solar system, has come upon a mass of impor- tant unpublished observations by the famous Schroeter. 32 ANNUAL EECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. These have long remained in the possession of the family, but the Belgian Academy has now resolved to publish such of these works as have been presented to it, especially a memoir of one thousand pages of descriptive manuscript text, and two hundred and seventeen drawings of the planet Mars, as ob- served between 1785 and 1803. The value of this work to the present generation of astronomers is very highly estimated. Schroeter was unexcelled in the accuracy of his work, and he has here dealt with all those details of his subject that have for some years past been so attentively studied by those who possess good telescopes. His attention was particularly given to the spots on Mars, both those that served to determine its rotation, and also the bright spots at its poles. Schroeter thought that the black spots belong to the clouds of Mars, which have a less reflecting power than the solid portions of the planet. Bull. Acad. Belgique., 1873, 352. EECENT OBSERVATIONS ON THE PLANET MAES. The last volume of the Annals of the Observatory of Ley- den contains an investigation by Kaiser, the director of that institution (whose recent death we have had occasion to an- nounce), upon the spots of the planet Mars, and the conclu- sions that may be drawn from their study. Besides his own observations. Kaiser had at his disposal some four hundred and twelve drawings published by previous astronomers since the year 1636. Concerning these latter, Kaiser says that he finds such great discordances between them that one can scarcely believe that they refer to the same body ; but while these diflerences are partly due to the fact that only those portions of the planet which are directly opposite to the ob- server can be distinctly seen, he attributes them principally to inexperience on the part of the observers, and want of uniform- ity in their methods of drawing. Perhaps the greatest differ- ence is noticed among the drawings made in 1862 by the most exi^erienced observers furnished with the most jjowerful tele- scopes. Of his own drawings. Kaiser publishes twenty-one en- gravings ; and, from very careful comparison with all the pre- vious ones at his disposal, he concludes that the time of rota- tion of Mars about its axis (which is known to be about once in one day and thirty-seven minutes) can not be determined as accurately as some astronomers have supposed ; and that a A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 33 time must elapse before it will be possible to use the rotation of Mars as a standard by which to judge of the invariability of the motion of the earth the problem which Sir William Herschel originally attempted to solve. The white spots near the north and south poles of Mars, which are generally supposed to be accumulated snow, have been subjected to accurate measurements by Kaiser, who thinks that the discrepancies in the conclusions of various observers in different years in regard to them is to be found in the hypothesis that these white regions undergo consider- able change of position on the surface of the planet. An?i. Ley den Obs.^ vol. iii. AX INCENDIAKY METEOEITE. Apprehensions have frequently been expressed concerning danger to property, and to life and limb, from the fall of a meteorite; but very few well -authenticated instances have liitherto been placed on record as to fires being caused by such bodies. We learn, however, from Gaea, that a few moments before the meteoric shower which was so prom- inent in Northern Germany in May last, two fishermen were passing up the River Trave, who saw a meteor fall and strike against a church tower, and rebound upon an adjacent house. This was accompanied by a loud report w^hich roused the town ; and in a few moments afterward fire was observed on the roof of the house, which spread, and destroyed several buildings before it was extinguished. 7 (7, 1873, vi., 356. A NEW COMET. Through the Smithsonian system of international scientific telesrrams we have received notice of the discovery of a new comet on the 19th of August by Borelli, the astronomer of the Observatory at Marseilles, France. Several errors seem to have been made in the communication as originally pub- lished, which for a few days delayed the astronomers of this country in finding and observing the comet as promptly as was desirable ; and it was announced to be impossible to discover any comet in the neighborhood of the position in- dicated by the figures given in the dispatch of August 19. On the other hand, Professor Hall, at Washington, who B2 34 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. makes it his duty to promptly follow up every newly dis- covered member of our solar system, informs us that a dis23atch from Paris dated August 24 has been received, communicating the position of a comet just discovered by the Messrs. Henry, of Paris. This comet was immediately found and accurately observed by Hall ; and it is suspected that there was some error in the original communication of Borelli. According to the system now generally adopted by astronomers, a comet is known by the year and the order of discovery. We have, then, the following comet record for 1873. The Jirst comet of 1873 is the periodic comet of 1867, the so- called Tempel's comet, and was first seen on its present re- turn by Stephan, of Marseilles, on the 3d of April. The secoiid comet of 1873 was discovered on the 3d of July by Tempel, at Milan, whither he had recently been driven by the proscrip- tion of the German citizens in France. This discovery was very generally announced throughout the astronomical world ; but, for some reason, Borelli seems to have been ignorant of it, and to have independently discovered it on July 30, when he announced it as a new comet. Tliis comet was observed by Professor Hall at 3 A.M., August 25, when it was in right ascension one hour and forty-eight minutes, and declination, south, thirteen degrees and twenty-six minutes. Schulhof, of Vienna, finds that this is a new periodic comet, having a period of about six years. The third comet of 1873 is that announced by Borelli on August 19, which, however, can not be found. The fourth and last is that telegraphed by Henry, of Paris, August 24, and which, when observed by Hall at Washington, at lialf past 3 A.M., August 26, was in right ascension seven hours and forty -one minutes, and declination north fifty-eight degrees and fifty-two minutes. It appears as quite a bright comet when seen through a nine- inch telescope, and is moving rapidly eastward and south- w^ard into the head of the constellation of the Lynx. THE NEW BUILDING OF THE CINCINNATI OBSERVATOEY. A public announcement was not long since made that the plans of the new observatory at Cincinnati had been approved, and were about to be carried into execution. It gives ns pleasure to record the rapid progress that has been made in this work, as evinced by the fact that on the 28th of August A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. ^^5 the corner-stone of the new building now in process of erec- tion on Mount Lookout was laid with becomino^ ceremonies. The site chosen for tlie new observatory is about four miles northeast of that on Mount Adams, ^^lere the original ob- servatory, founded by Professor O. M. Mitchell, was estab- lished. The corner-stone that was laid in 1848 on that ele- vation by John Quincy Adams has been carefully removed to the new site, and appropriately forms the corner-stone of the new equatorial pier. The observatory has, by means of a tripartite agreement with the city and the heirs of Nicholas Longworth, now passed into the hands of the Cin- cinnati University. The proceeds, amounting to $50,000, realized on the sale of the property on Mount Adams, have been invested for the support of the art department of the university. The city, however, has pledged itself to main- tain the observatory when once established, and the estab- lishment has itself been hastened by the liberality of Mr. John Kilgour, who has given four acres of ground as a site for the new building, and added $10,000 for the latter. The site is admirably adapted for the pur^Dose of the institution. It is one of the highest points in the county, commanding a beautiful and extended view, and it is not likely that the difficulty experienced at the old site from the smoke and vapors of the city will for a long time, if ever, trouble the astronomers on Mount Lookout. The new edifice faces south, having a width of about sixty feet, a depth of ninety feet, and two wings, making the breadth through the wings about one hundred feet. One of the wings will be used for the meridian instruments ; and in the centre of the building, on a brick pier thirty-six feet high and seventeen feet in diameter, will rest the big telescope. The building will be two stories liigh, except in the centre, where the revolving turret of iron for the equatorial will add half a story. The structure is to be of pressed brick, Avith freestone trimmings. The exercises connected w4th the ceremony consisted of an address by Hon.Rufus King, in which he gave a clear and interesting statement of the early history of the observatory, dwelling with peculiar interest upon the fiict that " it was the energy of Mitchell, his tireless zeal, his earnestness in the cause he so bravely espoused, that won the first victory for our city and gave us the observatory. That observat4)ry 36 ANNUAL KECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. was not only the incipient observatory of the country, "but was the electric spark which led to the universal cultivation of astronomy as a science in the United States, and, in time, to the establishment^ of the noble institutions which crown so many of our highest promontories. The example set by Cincinnati was not without influence in the founding of such observatories as we find now at Washington, Cambridge, Al- bany, and many other places all over the country." After al- luding to the labors of Mitchell, who was not daunted by the unfortunate fire that in the very first year of the existence of the observatory destroyed his previous means of support, and after dwelling upon the practical usefulness of the labors of Professor Abbe, and the new and, as he hoped, firm founda- tion upon which the future prosperity of the observatory seems now to be assured, he concludes with the expression of his belief, in which, we are sure, all who are conversant Avith the fact will unite, " that the Cincinnati Observatory is a noble monument to its founders, and a hundred years hence the descendants of the present and former generations will point to it with pride." Judge Hoadley followed Mr. King- by a short address, in Avhich he contrasted the labors of the astronomer, gauging the heavens with his telescope, and those of the Challenger^ now dredging the ocean. The cor- ner-stone was then laid, with an apj^ropriate address by Mayor Johnston, and the assemblage adjourned to a beauti- ful grove near by. Cincinnati Commercial. DISTKIBUTION OF THE STAES. Among the astronomical works executed of late years, and havinfic a bearing: on our ideas concerninq- the construction of the universe, none seem more worthy to rank with the labors of the Herschels and the Struves than Die Durchmiisterung ; or, The Marshaling of the Northern Heavens, by Argelander. This work embraces accurate observations of 324,000 stars, and the preparation of large and elaborate charts, showing graphically the position of these stars. In order to make use of this work in obtaining a general view of the distribution of the stars. Proctor has compiled an equal surface chart on a small scale, showing the number of stars in each square de- gree ; and from a study of this he deduced some interesting vi%ws, which were published in the year 1870. Astronomers A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 37 interested in these studies will be glad to learn that Mr. Proctor has now concluded to publish his chart in the shape of a photograph, eighteen inches in diameter ; and by means of which, with the naked eye, one may obtain a highly in- teresting and correct view of the appearance of the heavens as seen with a small telescoj^e. SUCCESS OF THE SYSTEM OF CABLE COMMUNICATION OF CELESTIAL PHENOMENA. The arrangement made by Professor Henry, of the Smith- sonian Institution, a few months ago, for the interchange be- tween America and Europe, by Atlantic cable, of important astronomical discoveries and announcements, appears to have borne excellent fruit. One great object of this movement was to enable astronomers in all parts of the world to con- centrate attention upon any celestial phenomenon before too great a change of place had occurred, or before the interven- tion of a long period of moonlight after the first discovery. On the 26th of May last Professor Henry announced a new planet, discovered by Professor Peters, to the Observatory of Paris, among other institutions, and on the following night it was looked for by the director of the Observatory of Marseilles, who at once detected it, and subjected it to a careful criticism. The announcement of three planets has thus far been made from the Smithsonian Institution to Europe ; the only return communication being that of a telescopic comet, discovered at Vienna on the 5th of July. On being notified of the fact. Professor Hough, of the Dudley Observatory, at Albany, made search for it, and succeeded in finding the object without any difiiculty. THE DIAMETER OF THE FIXED STAES. Stephan, of Marseilles, proposes the following method of determining the apparent diameter of the stars. If, through an excellent telescope, a star, whose angular diameter is real- ly nothing, be viewed with a sufficiently high magnifying power, the image is seen to be a bright spot surrounded by the concentric rings of light and shade which are called diff'raction rings. Fizeau has shown that these rings, if of extreme faintness and distance from the central spot, can only be formed when the angular diameter of the source of 38 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. light is nearly insensible ; and, following out the suggestion given by Fizeau, Stephan has applied to the Marseilles tele- scope a diaphragm having two apertures for the observa- tion of the fringes produced by interference. If the star has a certain diameter, the fringes will disappear altogether; and if its diameter is zero, the distances of the frino-es will vary with the distances of the two apertures in the dia- phragm. The results of Stephan's limited number of meas- ures thus far taken is that Sirius appears to have a measura- ble diameter. He hopes to continue his observations. 6 B, 1873, 1008. THE NEBULAR THEORY. Professor Peirce has communicated to the recent meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science the result of some of his investigations into the development of the solar system, according to the nebular hypothesis of Laplace. He considers that the actual rotation of the planets on their axes is explained on the supposition that they were formed from rings thrown off from the rotating central body, or sun, in the process of condensation. The inner portion of such a ring, having a less velocity than the outer portion, the axial rotation would necessarily follow the breaking up of the ring. Professor Peirce even is able by mathematical analysis to show that the velocity of the rotation of Jupiter and of Saturn is precisely such as would result from these the- oretical mechanical considerations. Proc. of the Portland Meeting of the Amer. Assoc, for the Advancement of Science. THE STABILITY OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM. Mr. Stockwell, in a memoir published by the Smithsonian Institution, gives the result of some laborious researches on the secular variations of the planetary orbits. The inequal- ities in the planetary motions that depend upon the variations of the elements of the elliptic orbits in which they move re- quire an immense number of years for their full develop- ment, and are called secular inequalities. The determina- tion of the periodic inequalities has hitherto received more attention than has been bestowed upon the secular inequal- ities. This is owing in part to the immediate requirements of astronomy, and also in part to the less intricate nature of A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 39 the problem; but, aside from any considerations connected with the immediate needs of practical astronomy, the study of the secular inequalities is one of the most interesting and important departments of the science, because their indefinite continuance in the same direction would ultimately seriously affect the stability of the planetary system. Lagrange and Laplace have, however, shown that the secular inequalities are themselves periodic, requiring many centuries in which to complete their cycles. The exact computation of these inequalities has been undertaken, both by the former astron- omers and by Pontecoulant, and subsequently with greater accuracy by Le Verrier. But Stockwell has approached the problem with the advantage of the most recent discoveries in astronomy and accurate knowledge of the motions of the planets, and has given to the whole work of computation a system such that it is now possible to determine the secular variations of the planetary elements with less labor, perhaps, than would answer for the accurate determination of a com- et's orbit, which latter is a matter of perhaps ten hours' com- putation. Stockwell has computed anew, with the utmost accuracy, the numerical values of the secular changes of the elements of all the known planets. Li reference to the earth and its orbit, he says: "The secular motions w^hich take place in the case of the spherical earth are so modified by the actual condition of the terrestrial globe, that changes in the position of the equinox and equator are now produced in a few centuries that would otherwise require a period of many thousand years." This consideration is of much importance in the investigation of the reputed antiquity and chronology of those ancient nations which attained some proficiency in the science of astronomy, and the records of whose astronom- ical labors are the only remaining monuments of a highly in- tellectual people, of whose existence every trace has long since passed away. The grand problem which yet remains to be solved is thus clearly stated by Stockwell : A system of bodies moving in eccentric orbits is manifestly one of stability ; on the other hand, a system of bodies moving in circular orbits is one of unstable equilibrium. It would seem, then, that between the two supposed conditions a system might exist which possesses a greater degree of stability than either, the idea 40 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. is thus suggested of the existence of a system of bodies, such as the planets revolving around the sun, in which the masses of the different bodies are so adjusted to their mean distances as to insure to the system a greater degree of stability than would be possible by any other distribution of masses. The mathematical consideration of the criterion for such a dis- tribution of the masses has not yet been fully developed, and the problem is here introduced for the purpose of calling the attention of mathematicians and astronomers to it. Smith- soiiiaii Report J 1871, 272. THE SPECTEUM OF THE SOLAK ATMOSPHERE. Rayet has communicated some novel observations made by him on the spectrum of the solar atmosphere. He on the 16th of August made the remarkable and entirely unexpect- ed discovery of the reversion of one only of the two lines that constitute the sodium line D in the solar spectrum. At a proper altitude, one only of these two lines, namely, the less refrangible, seemed bright, and at a proper distance from the solar limb both the lines were reversed the less refrangi- ble w^as always far brighter than the other. As yet these two lines of the spectrum have always appeared identical in the laboratory experiments; but it is notable that they are not precisely equal, and that upon the sun the most refrangi- ble is slightly brighter. In considering his observations upon other substances, Rayet considers it probable that there may be a general law applied in a great number of neigh- borinsc lines belono-ingj to the same substance. The less re- frangible will be those that are most easily reversed. 6 J^, 1873,530. sporee's obseevations upon the sun. Sporer has quite recently communicated to the Academy of Sciences in Berlin the result of his recent observations upon the solar spots and protuberances. In the case of many of the protuberances, known as the red flames, it seems to him that they owe their origin to the presence of solar cyclones. "Sporer accounts for the presence of protuberances on several successive days in very nearly the same spot by the suppo- sition that volcanic eruptions take place. He divides the protuberances into two classes, those that are of the nature A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 41 of flames, and which Secchi calls rays, and the j^roper hydro- gen protuberances. In respect to the nature of these latter, Secchi thinks that they have no relation to the spots, while Sporer ascribes to them an intimate connection with spot formations. By connecting his own observations with those of Carrington, Sporer shows that the solar spots are more frequent in the southern than in the northern hemisphere, that they diminish in size and number more rapidly than they increase as they pass from their successive minima and maxima. Sporer also confirms a singular result previously arrived at by Carrington, namely, that the spots at the time of the minimum approach the solar equator, but at other times are more numerous in higher latitudes. 12 A, 1873, 391. ON THE DIAMETER OF THE SUN. The observations of Rosa on the diameter of the sun, from which Secchi has concluded that this is subject to a periodic variation intimately connected with the protuberances and the spots, has called forth a review of his measurements by Wagner, of the Poulkova Observatory, in which he not only shows the Aveakness of Secchi's reasoning, but contrib- utes very valuable and important information in regard to the subject, in the shape of a discussion of the observations made by himself with the most refined instruments of mod- ern times. Wagner states as his own conclusions that the precision of the image of the sun, as it appears in the tel- escope, varies much more than that of the stars, which cir- cumstance evidently depends upon the influence of the hot rays of the sun for the worst images coincide with the most transparent atmosphere, while slight cloudiness or ha- ziness in general favors the production of sharp definition. Wagner therefore arranges his observations in six groups, varying with the steadiness of the atmosphere. He finds that in general the solar diameter, as measured by him, is greater as the vision becomes poorer. Arranging his obser- vations according to a period of twenty-seven and a half days, which is the time of the rotation of the sun, he finds no trace of a change in the solar diameter. Arranging them in annual groups, however, he finds an annual period, that evi- dently depends upon the fact that the condition of the at- 42 ANNUAL EECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. mosphere in the winter time is much less favorable to ac- curate observations than in the summer time. Vierteljahrs- schrift der Ast^'onom. Gesellschaft. THE CONSTITUTIOIS' OF THE SUN. The discussion as to the nature of the solar spots that has now for over a year occupied the attention of the Frencli Academy of Sciences seems to have consisted chiefly of a series of hypotheses, proposed by Secchi, Vicaire, and others, in opposition to the well-established views of Faye. The latter has, with some success, defended his own views, and shows the weak points or fallacies in the reasoning of other astronomers on this subject. In one of the last communica- tions which we have from Faye, he gives an excellent resume of the various hypotheses that have from time to time been proposed to account for the phenomena seen upon the sun's surface. He states as follows : 1. They tell us that the sun is a body dark and cold, sur- rounded by a thin shell of gas, or of certain physical forces developing incessantly light and heat. Gaseous eruptions rise from the solid nucleus and form the sjjots. This hy- pothesis has obtained very generally until the last few years, although it seems to be a case of perpetual motion. 2. Others aflirm that the sun is an incandescent liquid globe, upon which appear scorioe like those to be seen in fused metal. It would be difficult to say how any such globe is kept free from being incrusted. 3. Others believe that the sun is a gaseous mass, kept at a temperature of many millions of degrees, and agitated by eruptions more or less volcanic. According to Tacchini, the spots are due directly to these eruptions. According to Secchi, they are due indirectly to depressions. What kind of eruptions can these be arising from the interior of a gas- eous mass ? 4. Others pretend that, except the temperature, the sun is like the earth ; that at least it has an atmosphere like ours, the winds blow as ours do, and the tempests even, and es- pecially the clouds are like ours. 5. Others affirm that the sun has the sensibility and the impressibility of explosive matter to such an extent that the most delicate forces, such as the attraction of the planets A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 43 Jupiter, the Earth, and Venus, can produce on its surface the great phenomena that it presents to iis. 6. According to Sir John Herschel, the sun is a nucleus, solid and cold, surmounted by many gaseous envelopes : in the exterior envelope, under the influence of trade Avinds, there form cyclones that penetrate perhaps into the interior envelopes that is to say, into the photosphere and into the region of the iDenumbra. By the admission of such impossible hypotheses science is much injured. 7. According to Mayer and Waterston, the sun is a body heated by the incessant collision of aerolites that fall upon its surface. This seems to be the germ of a grand idea, but fettered by the use of hypotheses. Finally, Mr.Vicaire proposes to consider the sun as a com- bustible body, that has been burning since a certain ej^och in an oxidizing atmosphere. As for himself, Faye says that he has endeavored to avoid all hypotheses, to simply study the movements of the spots, and establish from them such laws of nature as may result therefrom. 6 B, 1873, 301. THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SUN's SURFACE. On this subject Zollner, some three years ago, published some interesting investigations, in which he sought to de- termine the minimum limit which we must ascribe to the temperature of the sun. As the result of his very critical calculations, he found, for the temperature of the glowing fluid surface, 13,230 degrees Centigrade. On the other hand, the temperature at a depth, below his surface, of one-fortieth part of the sun's radius, he concluded must be something over 1,000,000 degrees Centigrade. DiflTering from him, Secchi comes to the result that the temperature of the sur- face must amount to 5,000,000 degrees or more, and that this is the lowest limit that we can possibly adopt. These two results are so discordant with each other that Zollner has undertaken, in a second investigation, to arrive at the desired temperature by an entirely different method of rea- soning. It is evident that any method for the determination of any physical peculiarity of the sun, based on measure- ments and principles derived from our experience on the earth, w^ill yield the more probable results in proportion as 44 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. the number of assumptions are fewer and simpler. Zollner's new method for the determination of the solar temperature requires only one single theoretical assumption, viz., the law of Mariotte and Gay-Lussac; and but one empirical assump- tion, viz., the knowledge of the ratio of the densities of the aqueous portion of the atmosphere at two different distances from the solar surface. The spectroscopic study of the solar limb allows us to investigate the so-called chromosj^here, which is an important portion of the atmosphere, and to de- termine the mean altitude of this layer, wherever there are protuberances to disturb the equilibrium. If, then, we were able to determine, even roughly, the ratio of the pressures or of the densities on the upper and lower limits of the chro- mosphere, we should be in possession of the above-mentioned desired data, by the use of Avhich we should be able to ascer- tain the mean value of the temperature of the chromosphere. Zollner, in accordance with these views, shows that it is, in fact, possible to determine approximately the ratio of the pressures at the base and at the upper limit of the chromo- sphere. According to the observations made by WtiUner, he shows that the change of pressure from 2000 millimeters to one millimeter produces an effect on the spectrum of the hy- drogen similar to that change which is observed in the spec- trum of the chromosphere when Ave pass from its lower to its upper limit. The mean height of the chromosphere, on the most quiet portion of the sun's surface, is about ten sec- onds of an arc. Combining this with the j^receding datum of Wullner, Zullner says that the absolute temperature of the chromosphere is 61,350 degrees Centigrade. To this re- sult Zollner attributes, naturally, only very slight weight, except in tliat it must be considered an approximation suffi- ciently near to the truth to show that the very high temper- ature of 5,000,000 advocated by Secchi is entirely out of the question. Secchi had established his very high temperature upon the assumption of the proportionality between the radi- ation of heat from any body and its absolute temperature. This assumption, however, has already been shown by Zoll- ner to be quite erroneous ; and, lately, Soret has, by some interesting investigations, confirmed the correctness of Zoll- ner's conclusions. Soret, by means of a very hot flame, brings to a bright glow a plate of zircon, and then determines its A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 45 radiation of heat with the help of his actinometer, which same instrument he also employed for the measurement of the radiation of heat from the sun. It is known that the temperature of the plate of zircon could not be much higher than 2500, which is the temperature of the flame in which it was heated ; but Soret finds that, if he applies to his ob- servations with the actinometer the principle applied by Secchi, he receives for the resulting temperature of the plate of zircon a value of 46,000 ; whence it must be concluded that the law of proportionality between the radiation and the absolute temperature of a body is extremely erroneous al- ways giving results perhaps twenty times too great. 7 C^ 1873, 411. THE SPECTKA OF THE SUN's LIMB AND CENTEE. Mr. Hastings, of the Sheffield Scientific School of New Haven, has endeavored to overcome an inconvenience that has hitherto impeded the direct comparison of the spectra of the limb and centre of the sun. He has succeeded in bring- ing the two spectra side by side in the field of view of his spectroscope, by introducing in front of the slit a small prism with four polished sides. The rays of light from the limb of the sun, after entering this prism, are subject to a total reflection, and while the telescope is directed to the centre of the sun, so that its light falls directly npon the slit of the spectroscope, the rays from the sun's limb, after passing through the four-sided prism, also fill upon the slit, and the observer receives them both simultaneously into his eye. When the instrument is properly directed, and in adjust- ment, we see a very narrow black line dividing the spectrum longitudinally into two parts of widely diflferent intensity. The fainter part, belonging to the limb of the sun, is marked on its edge by the chromosphere lines. The difiei-ences be- tween these two spectra are immediately recognized, and are most pronounced when the sky is the clearest. Since the light from the border of the sun undergoes a general absorption within the solar atmosphere, so that its intensity is reduced to much less than one fourth of that at the centre, Ave mio^ht expect that the lines in the spectrum of the limb would very materially difl*er from those seen in the spectrum of the cen- tre of the sun. Hastings says that the. spectroscopic charac- 46 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. ter is indeed changed very slightly ; that it is impossible for him to escape the conviction that the seat of the selective absorption which produces the Frauenhofer lines is below the envelope which exerts the general absorption shown by the diminished brightness of the borders of the solar disk. But the phenomena of the solar faculse, or bright spots, prove that the exterior envelope is very thin, and rests upon the photo- sphere, whence Hastings concludes, from both these prem- ises, that the origin of the Frauenhofer lines must be in the photosphere itself, in accordance w^ith Lockyer's views. A farther modification of this apparatus has enabled Hastings to bring into the same field of view the sj^ectra of two oppo- site edo:es of the sun. The rotation of the sun on its axis was then very clearly demonstrated by its effects on the spectral lines, their relative positions being manifestly dis- placed by reason of the change in the refrangibility, due to the fact that one limb of the sun was approaching while the other was receding from the observer. 4 D, 1873, 369. THE CONNECTION BETWEEN MAGNETISM, AUEOKAS, AND SOLAR SPOTS. Professor Loomis, the well-known meteorologist, has made a careful comparison between the relative extent of solar spots, the diurnal inequality of the magnetic declination, and the number of auroras so far as they have been catalogued from the year 1776 to the year 1872, and his conclusions may be stated as follows : A diurnal inequality of the magnetic declination, amount- ing at Prague to about six minutes, is independent of the changes in the sun's surface from year to year. The excess of the diurnal inequality above six minutes, as observed at Prague, is nearly proportional to the amount of spotted sur- face upon the sun, and may therefore be inferred to be pro- duced by this disturbance of the sun's surface, or both dis- turbances may be ascribed to a common cause. The corre- spondence between the auroral curve and the sun's spot curve, thouo'h not as close as between the macjnetic curve and the sun's spot curve, is certainly quite remarkable. In only two cases is there any sensible difference in the dates of minimum of the two classes of phenomena. There is, how- ever, some disaccordance between the dates of maximum, A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 47 and such as to sii2:2:est that the connection between mage- netic and auroral curves is more intimate than between the auroral and the sun's spot curves. The critical periods of the auroral curve occur a little later than those of the sun's spot curve, and the aurora maximum is frequently more pro- longed than the sun spot maximum. If we institute a com- parison between the auroral and the magnetic curve, we shall find the correspondence to be still more remarkable. The auroral maximum generally occurs a little later than the magnetic maximum, while the time of auroral minimum co- incides with and slightly precedes the magnetic minimum. On the whole there seems to be no room for question that the number of auroras seen in the middle latitudes of Europe and America exhibits a true periodicity, following very close- ly the magnetic periods, but not exactly copying them. If, now, we inquire as to the proper connection between these three classes of phenomena, we can not suppose that the small black spot on the sun exerts any direct influence on the earth's magnetism or electricity, but we must rather con- clude that the black spot is the result of a disturbance at the sun's centre, that is accompanied by an emanation of some influence from the sun which is almost immediately felt upon the earth in an unusual disturbance of the earth's mascnetism and development of the auroral light. "Appearances," says Professor Looniis, "favor the idea that this emanation con- sists of a direct flow of electricity from the sun. If we main- tain that lio'ht and heat are the resiilt of vibrations of a rare CD ether which fills all space, the analogy between this and electricity would lead us to conclude that this latter is also the result of vibrations in the same medium, or, at least, that it is a force capable of being propagated through the ether, with a velocity similar to that of light." This idea of the nature of electricity has already been developed by other scientists, especially by J. Clerk Maxwell. 4 D, 1873, 245. ON THE COXXECTIOX BETWEEN AUEORAS, SUN SPOTS, AND TEEEESTEIAL MAGNETIS:\r. Dr. H. Fritz has recently published the results of an in- vestigation on the periodicity of the auroras, and his con- clusions are not very dissimilar to those subsequently pub- lished by Professor Loomis, of Yale College. Fritz says that 48 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDlTSTRY. the polar light is a periodical phenomenon, whose most im- portant i^eriod embraces fifty-five years, approximately. Four of these periods, apparently, group themselves together and form a greater period of over two hundred years, while the fifty-five-year period itself is subdivided into five secondary periods of about eleven years each. The fifty-five-year pe- riod stands in an intimate relation to the period of the sun's spots, the maxima and the minima of each corresponding exactly; but the principal maxima of the auroras are more decided than those of the sun's spots. The aurora stands in an intimate relation to the terrestrial magnetism and its va- riations : from observations gathered from the most various regions of the earth, we know that magnetic disturbances and auroras frequently happen at the same time, or follow each other in close connection ; but the disturbances of the terrestrial magnetism that accompany the polar lights are not ^perceptible at all the magnetic stations, and probably auroras sometimes form without being connected with any disturbance of the earth's magnetism. A comparison of the curves representing the changes in the various elements of the earth's magnetism with the auroral curve shows that the max- imum of the aurora that occurs daily about ten o'clock in the evening agrees completely with that minimum of the mag- netic declination which, like the maximum of the auroras, is delayed the farther north we go. This aurora maximum only coincides with the secondary maximum of magnetic perturba- tions that is shown at many stations on the globe, because the aurora maximum corresponds in high latitudes with that max- imum of the magnetic disturbance that occurs after midnight. The annual periods of terrestrial magnetism and of auroras agree still better, since the separate elements of both agree in their principal features with the equinoxes. Since the secular period of the auroras agrees with the period of the solar spots, and these latter again run jDarallel to the variation of mag- netic declination, therefore it follows that the eleven-year and the greater periods, both for the auroras and the ter- restrial magnetism, must agree. The magnetic disturbances, and probably also the secular variations of the earth's mag- netism, stand also in intimate relation to the auroras. Dr. Fritz concludes that the entire series of observations that he has discussed justifies us by no means in forming, as yet, any A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 49 theory upon the nature and cause of the aurora rather must we still further diligently observe and establish the regularity of the phenomena. 19 (7, 18V3, 234. THE RED FLAMES OF THE SUJ^^ SEEN WITH A COMMON TEL- ESCOPE. Mr. R. Langdon communicates to Nature the result of some observations which are well worthy of being repeated. Very few observers have met with such success in this line as he appears to have had, and his method will place it with- in the power of the amateur every where, at very little ex- pense, to observe the red protuberances of the sun. Langdon states that he cut out several circular disks of thin brass, blackened on both sides, and, after trying several, found one the right size, such that when inserted in the interior of his telescope at the focus of the object-glass, it very exactly con- cealed the glowing body of the sun. He expected then, pos- sibly, to be able to view the protuberances on the limb of the sun, and in this he states that he was successful, so that on the 16th of June, 1872, he observed such a protuberance on the southwestern limb of the sun, and on the 20th of Septem- ber he again saw a red flame. These flames did not appear to be projected against the sky, but upon a very delicate pur- ple background. No colored glass was used in either of these observations, but while adjusting the apparatus a sheet of letter paper was held betw^een the eye and the telescope, which was removed the instant the sun w^as exactly behind the artificial occulting disk. This method reminds one of a proposition recently made by Professor Abbe to Dr. John W. Draper, of New York, in which it was projDOsed to place at the solar focus a plate of glass having a central circular aper- ture equal to the diameter of the solar image : the light and heat of the solar disk passes through the aperture, while by using properly selected chemicals we should be able to di- rectly photograph the solar protuberances without waiting for a total eclipse of the sun. 12 -4, 1873, 263. ASTEROID NO. 134. Professor Henry has received a telegram from Professor Foerster, Director of the Berlin Observatory, announcing the discovery by Dr. Luther, at Dusseldorf, of a planet on the C 50 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. 27th of August. The position of the object was at that time in right ascension 7 minutes, and in declination north 7 53', moving toward the south slowly, and of the tenth magni- tude. In connection with the discovery of new planets, it may be mentioned that elaborate charts of the heavens, in- cluding every star visible with a large telescope, have been prepared by most of the astronomers who are busy in this field of discovery. Specimens of such charts were recently exhibited before the German Astronomical Association by Professor Peters, of Hamilton College, and the desire was ex- pressed that these should be published for the general use of astronomers. THE ECLIPSES OF JUPITER's SATELLITES. The method of determining the longitude at sea by obser- vations of the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, that was so dili- gently studied by the great inventor of the telescope, has, as is well known, during the last few years fallen into disre- pute, while the advantages of the accurate observation of the moon have justified navigators in generally adopting the method of lunar observations in preference to any other. In order, however, to remove from astronomy the reproach of allowing any phenomenon to take place witliout being ob- served, Professor Airy has urged that there should be made more numerous observations upon the satellites of Jupiter at fixed observatories, and with telescopes of various powers, that the mathematical tables representing the motions of these bodies might be perfected. Among the numerous con- tributions to this subject that have appeared during the past few years, that by Glasenapp,of the observatory at Poulkova, seems to be of much interest. In this communication Glase- napp compares the observations of ten different observers, all stati(ined at the same place, and observing the same satellite with telescopes of very various optical powers. After a care- ful discussion of these results, he points out that, although the differences between the individual observers are very con- siderable, 3^et the mean of the observations made upon both limbs of the planet accord very well among themselves, whence he concludes that, although in the observation of isolated contacts, the personal equations produced by the dif- ferences in the eyes and telescopes may be very consider- A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 51 able, yet their eifect ^dll disappear, in great part, on taking the mean of each pair of corresponding contacts. It remains then to determine the coefficients necessary in order to re- duce the apparent moment of contact of the limbs of the planets and satellites to the true moment of the contact of the centres of these planets. Bull. Imp. Acad, of S>ciences^ St. Petersburg^ vol. xviii., p. 98. ox THE EXISTENCE OF A RESISTING MEDIUM IN SPACE, It is well known that the principal argument in support of the existence of a gaseous medium in space, that offers sensible resistance to the motions of bodies through it, is drawn from tlie computations of Encke, in reference to the comet commonly known as Encke's comet. The observa- tions of the successive appearances of this comet, at intervals of six years between the dates of 1819 and 1848, were discuss- ed by Encke with an immense outlay of*time consumed in the necessary computations; and, after having made allow- ance for the disturbance of the orbit of the comet by the at- tractive influences of all the known planets, Encke found him- self forced to conclude that the observed appearances could not be reconciled with the present constitution of the solar system, unless there were introduced a hypothesis as to the actual existence of some gas that should retard the motion of the comet around the sun. The only source of error that can possibly be attributed to Encke's computations lies in the intrinsic imperfections of our knowledge of the masses of the planets and of the mathematical formulae employed by him. In order to remove all doubt as to this question. Dr. Von Asten has undertaken to go over the principal portion of Encke's computations, pursuing, however, an entirely inde- pendent method, and introducing the use of mathematical formulae of a far more perfect nature than those emj^loyed by Encke. It is only after Encke's methods of computing the perturbations have been controlled by other methods whose perfection is undoubted that one can decide whether the hy- pothesis of the opposing medium in space is entirely untena- able, or whether it merely needs slight modifications. Dr. Von Asten has, in this revision of Encke's results, happily availed himself of the mathematical memoirs of Gylden and Hansen. The former astronomer has developed improve- 52 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. meiits on Hansen's method of computing perturbations, in that lie represents the mean anomaly of the disturbed planet by an elliptic integral. By applying Gylden's and Hansen's methods, Von Asten finds himself justified in the belief that the complete computation of the absolute perturbations of Encke's comet is a labor whose execution lies quite within the limits of possibility. He has himself, in his memoir pub- lished recently, gone through with the necessary computa- tions relating to Jupiter's attraction on the comet, and it is to be hoped that competent persons will be found to take up the subject at this point, and carry out the computations re- lating to the influences of other planets ; so that, eventually, the question of the existence of Encke's resisting medium may be definitely settled. ^U'ntersuc/mnge7i Mickeschen Co- meien, Dr. Yon Asten^ St. Petersburg^ 18V2. ON THE COi^STITUTlON OF THE SUN's CKUST. Professor C. A. Young has suggested that the solar crust may consist of a more or less continuous sheet of descending i-ain, not of water, of course, but of the materials whose va- pors exist in the solar atmosphere, and whose condensations and combinations are supposed to furnish the solar heat. As this tremendous rain descends, the velocity of the falling drops would be retarded by the resistance of the denser gases underneath, or the drops would coalesce until a continuous sheet would be formed, and these sheets would unite into a sort of bottomless ocean, resting upon the compressed vapors beneath a forest of innumerable ascending jets and bubbles. The thickness of this sheet would depend upon the evapora- tion at its bottom, and upon the rapidity of its growth at the top, and would probably continually increase at the same slow rate. 12 A, 1873, 393. THE SPECTROSCOPIC METHOD OF OBSERVING THE TRANSIT OF VENUS. In order to observe the first moment of the contact of the planet Venus with the disk of the sun at the approaching transit of Venus, it is proposed to emplo)'^, not only the di- rect photographic, but also the so-called spectroscopic meth- od. This last method consists in this: Before the apparent contact of the two objects takes place, a spectroscope adjusted A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 53 to the telescope is so placed that at the point on the solar disk where the contact is expected we shall behold the bright lines of the sun's atmosphere, which extend, as is well known, to a considerable distance from the glowing body of that lu- minary. It is, therefore, apparent that when the planet ap- proaches the solar disk, it Avill, first of all, cut off the bright spectroscopic lines representing the solar atmosphere, and in this w^ay will itself, as it were, become visible ; whereas otherwise it would be invisible until it had entered upon the bright solar limb. By this means the observer becomes per- fectly prepared for the observation of the exact moment of the contact of the dark disk of Venus and the bright disk of the sun. This method has, indeed, been employed in. obser- vations of solar eclipses, and wuth such success that it is known that the moment of contact can thus be observed more exactly than in any other way. Secchi has announced a modification of this method, and has tested it in the instance of the j^artial solar eclipse that occurred in Italy on the 26th of May last. His arrangement is as follows : In front of the slit of the ordinary sj^ectroscope, and about one inch distant therefrom, he places a dispersing prism of considerable power. This prism offers, in the plane of the slit, an image of the sun constructed of many-colored rings, like a very impure spectrum. The rays that penetrate from this image through the spectroscope give, in the field of view of the small telescope, a very sharj) and clear image of the sun, in which not only the limb, but also the dark and bright spots are clearly seen ; in short, one sees the sun as through a colored glass. The chromosphere, seen by a prop- er arrangement of the apparatus, has a bright line, somewhat distant from the sun's disk, corresponding to the altitude of the chromosphere, and the spectral line tliat we choose to employ. It follows, therefore, that the opaque planet will cover the chromosphere on the corresponding point in the field of view of the telescope ; the chromospheric line will be broken ; and the observer thus is forewarned that the planet approaches its contact with the sun. In making his first trial upon the eclipse, Secchi w^as able to detect the approacli- inc: and otherwise invisible moon eleven seconds before its first contact with the sun's limb. In applying the same method to the transit of Venus, on account of the slow mo- 54 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. tion of the planet, this interval of time will be materially larger. At the end of the eclipse, Secchi was able to follow the moon for twenty-five seconds after the close of the actual eclipse. At the end of forty-eight seconds, he states that there was no longer any trace of the moon that it had evidently completely passed the chromosphere. It is interesting to com- pare the result of Secchi's observations, made with the pow- erful assistance of this method of observation, with those obtained by his two assistants, and it appears that the latter first detected the presence of the moon at the beginning of the eclipse from ten to fifteen seconds after the actual con- tact as observed by Secchi. On the other hand, Respighi applied to the same eclipse of the sun the ordinary spectro- scopic method ; that is, without a j^rism in front of the spec- troscope, and without a spectroscopic slit. In this form of the apparatus we see, not the sun's limb, but the chromo- sphere in the shape of concentric rings ; and Respighi had to assume for the moment of contact that in which the colored rings were entirely broken through. His measurements also dift'er considerably from Secchi's; but it appears that Re- spighi has observed the first contact twenty-one seconds ear- lier even than Secchi. It would seem that Respighi's method, however, can not be so exact as that of Secchi, since Re- spighi does not distinctly see the sun's limb. It is, therefore, apparent that this method suggested by Secchi is a decided improvement upon that which has been employed by several spectroscopists during the past five years. 19 C, 1873, 280. THE HEAT EADIATED FROM THE MOOJST. The Earl of Rosse has made an attempt to determine, by accurate observations, the heat that we receive from the moon. For this purpose he employs a very delicate thermo- multiplier in connection with his six-foot reflecting telescope. Observations made during the eclij^se of the moon showed that the least heat was received from the moon in the middle of the eclipse, when also the least quantity of light was re- ceived, at which time the quantity of heat was only one half of that observed durina: the full moon. From a lonsr series of observations, corrected for the change in the distance of the moon. Lord Rosse is able to draw a curved line, whose or- dinates express the heat, and whose abscissas exj^ress the cor- A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 55 responding altitude of the moon above the horizon. By com- bining these observations again, he derives a table for correct- ing all his observations for the influence of the absorption of the earth's atmosphere, which table is very nearly identical with that which has been previously obtained by others for allowing for the influence of the earth's atmosphere in ab- sorbinsT the lioht of the moon and stars. The final result of Lord Rosse's investigation is that, as the moon reaches the full, the increase of the heat radiated to the earth is more rapid than at any previous time since the new moon ; a result similar to that obtained by Zollner in studying the brightness of the moon. Proc. Roy, Soc.^ Aprils 1873. THE METEOK OF JUNE 17, 1873. The brilliant meteor that appeared over Southern Germany and Bohemia on the l7th of June last, has been made the sub- ject of an attempt by Yon Niessl to determine the orbit and magnitude of this body. The meteor was seen to break into many pieces, and the sound of the explosion was heard as a fearful noise, while the fragments fell burning to the earth, some of them having been actually secured by the inhabitants, and are described as being of the size of peas, and having something the appearance of sulphur. Yon Niessl concludes that the altitude of this body, when it was first seen, was about eight and a half miles above the earth, and when it ex- ploded w^as about four and one third miles. In attempt- ing to determine what orbit this body must have been de- scribing about the sun before it came into the earth's atmos- phere, he assumes that its motion may have been in a hy- perbolic orbit, and that it must have passed nearest to the sun in the latter half of July, at Avhich time it was distant from the sun about six tenths of the earth's distance. The diameter of the meteor, whether it w^ere a compact mass or a collection of small masses, is concluded to have been about 1000 feet. Astro?!. JVach., 1873, 165. ON THE ALTITUDE OF SHOOTING-STARS. Dufour relates a most interestinsr observation in connection with the shower of shooting-stars on the 27th of November last. He says that during that same evening he was in Switzerland, at Morge. The heavens were entirely covered 56 ANNUAL EECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. with an extremely thin cloud, and there could be distinguish- ed with great clearness from his point of view the general outline of the Alps, and even the summit of Mount Blanc, ele- vated 4800 meters above the sea. He observed that from half-past eight to nine o'clock in the evening, during which he paid especial attention to the matter, he did not see a sin- gle shooting-star, and, as others know they were visible in all other portions of Europe, he concludes that there could not have been a single one that penetrated into the atmos- phere to a point 4800 meters high. At this altitude and at that time he computes that there must have been 0.55 of the atmosphere above Mount Blanc, and, consequently, the numer- ous meteors which were at this time shooting through the air had all become extinct after having traversed this same 0.55 of its thickness. In general, Dufour remarks that, in the course of many years, he has never yet observed a single shooting-star below the clouds. 6 B, 1873, 497. RECENTLY DISCOVERED COMETS. The third comet of 1873 was recently announced as having been discovered by Borelli on the 19th of August. The fourth comet, which has by some been mistakenly assumed to be the same as Borelli's, was discovered by Paul Henry at Paris on the 24th of Ausjust. The fifth comet is now an- nounced, and is none other than the periodic comet of Faye-, for the discovery of which an ephemeris had been computed by Mr. Plummer. The large disaccordance between Mr.Plum- mer's ephemeris and the actual position of the comet has somewhat retarded its discovery, but it is now announced as having been found by Mr. Stephan, the director of the ob- servatory at Marseilles. The position of the comet is two hours of right ascension in advance of Plummer's ephemeris. 12^,1873,371. biela's comet. In reference to Biela's comet, which was believed to have broken into two portions in the year 1845, and to have sub- sequently disappeared in a great number of smaller portions, appearing as a shower of meteors in the year 1872, Klinker- fues has published a short study, in which he maintains that the original Biela's comet described a somewhat different CD A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 57 orbit from that of the modern comet, especially because of the disturbance experienced by the attraction of the planet Jupiter; but allowing for this disturbance, Klinkerfues con- cludes that probably the comet which was seen in the year 1162 w^as identical with it, and was also intimately connected Avitli the shower of meteors known to have been observed in the year 524. 19 (7, 1873, 214. THE PEIilE VERTICAL TRANSIT INSTRUMENT AT LISBON. . It is well known that the transit instrument, when used in the prime vertical, has in the hands of Struve led to the most accurate possible determinations of the zenith distance of the stars and the constants of stellar aberration, nutation, and parallax. The investigation of parallax is, of all others, the most delicate that ens^asfes the attention of the astron- omer. It was, therefore, with great interest that Struve gave to the government of Portugal his advice when consulted, in 1861, in regard to the new observatory that was then about to be erected at Lisbon. The geographical position of the Royal Observatory at Tapada was to be such that the bright star Alpha Lyrse must pass near its zenith every day at its transit, and Struve represented the great value that would attach to a thorough investigation of the parallax of this star, to which purpose he knew of no instrument so well adapted as the prime vertical transit. The labor of using this instru- ment is so considerable, and the advantage of a thorough familiarity with the methods of so expert an observer as Struve was so highly esteemed, that the Portuguese govern- ment dispatched to St. Petersburg a young officer of the navy. Lieutenant Oom, whose duty it should be to perfect himself in practical astronomy at the renowned observatory of which Struve was the director. The new observatory at Lisbon contains, besides the prime vertical, also a magnifi- cent equatorial and an excellent meridian circle. While each of these instruments is, in its way, of the most perfect construction, yet especial interest centres in the prime verti- cal transit. This has been manufactured by the famous artists, the brothers Repsold, of Hamburg, who have intro- duced into its construction several novel features. Upon a solid pedestal of stone there stands a pier of iron, manufact- ured at the great establishment of Krupp. On this pier the C2 58 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. telescope rests at one end of a horizontal axis, whose opposite end bears a counterpoise of the same weight. The iron pier, with the telescope, admits of being raised a small fraction of an inch, reversed in its position, and set down again, the w^hole operation employing less than one minute, although the weight to be moved amounts to about 2500 pounds. The length of the telescope is seven and a half feet, and the aperture of the object-glass about seven inches. Jovnal da Academia, Lisbon. STELLAR PHOTOMETRY. The invention by Dr.Zollner,in 1862, of his elegant photom- eter, which is specially designed for the study of the relative brightness of the stars, seems to have given a great impetus to this branch of astronomy. By Zollner's instrument, the determination of the brightness of a star is made a matter of exact measurement, and leads to more correct results than any other method that has as yet been proposed. With the results attained by himself and his colleague, Engelmann, of Leipsic, our readers are already acquainted. The most recent publication in this field of observation is by Lindemann, who has, by using the instrument that belongs to the Imperial Observatory at Poulkova, sought to determine, in a general way, the relation between the intrinsic brightness of the classes of stars that are usually designated as of the third, fourth, and fifth magnitudes, etc. He has extended his la- bors even to the faint stars of the ninth magnitude, and has chosen especially such portions of the heavens for the study as afibrd him groups of stars of the greatest possible variety of magnitudes. Lindemann finds that the comparison of his own work with that of his predecessor in this field. Dr. Rosen, shows such a uniformity in their results as to give great weight to their importance. From 1 75 observations of bright and faint stars, Lindemann deduces as the most probable value of the coeflicient of brightness in passing from one order of magnitudes to the next inferior, the decimal fraction 0.0394. This, therefore, in connection with the results of Rosen, seems to him to justify us in the belief that the mean ratio of the brightness of successive stellar magnitudes, for the stars of Argelander's Durchmusterimg^ can now be considered as quite accurately determined. But, as to the question of the A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 59 differences that may exist in the special ratios between any two successive orders of magnitudes, he conchides that the observations are, as yet, only sufficient to justify the belief that this ratio is smaller for the stars visible to the naked eye than for telescopic stars. BuU. Imp. Acad, of Sciences^ 8t.Fetersburg^ vol. xviii., 34. biela's comet. The various hypotheses as to the formation of comets and the groups of meteoroids, with which certain comets are in- timately associated, have received somewhat further elucida- tion from a recent communication of Professor Kirkwood. Two theories have been broached, which respectively require that the different bodies moving together in the orbit of Biela's comet have entered the solar system, either as a sin- gle mass, subsequently broken up into portions, or as a group of cometary bodies. The latter hypothesis has been advo- cated by Kirkwood, who adduces the following facts in its support : 1. There is nothing improbable in supposing that the bod- ies now known as the Biela comet, or the Biela group of comets, were originally distinct and separate masses while they were moving in straight lines through space, and be- fore their orbits were changed into ellipses, with the sun as a focus. 2. It is improbable that, had they originally been imited, they would have escaped observation until the year 1845. 3. It is highly probable that the comet of 1818 is intimate- ly related to that of Biela, and that that of 1Y72 belongs to the same group, if, indeed, it be not identical with that of 1818, whence it would follow that the Biela group of comets began to separate from each other long before the year 1845, when the first actual observation of their separation was made. 4. It is probable that the comet whose discovery is due to Klinkerfues and Pogson on the 2d of December, 1872, and which has by some been regarded as identical with the long- lost companion of Biela's comet, is, on the other hand, an- other member of the same family. 5. If we trace back the position of Biela's comet and the planet Jupiter, we shall find that they Avere in the vicinity of each other in September, 1734. This is the most recent 60 ANNUAL EECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. date previous to 1772 at which they could have been in close proximity; and Kirkwood considers it probable that the members of this cometary cluster were at that time throAvn into their present elliptical orbit, and that since then the various members of the group, by collisions with each other, and possibly with meteoric streams, have become gradually separated. By assigning this as the date at which Biela's comet entered the solar system, Kirkwood explains the fact that the meteors, which have been five times observed since 1798, are not recorded to have been observed previous to that date, whereas other systems of meteors connected with other cometary groups may be traced back many centuries. 6i>, 1873, 21. THE DAILY PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE SUN. Professor Winlock, of Cambridge Observatory, states that by the last year's work he has been able to secure photo- graphs of the sun on at least twenty-five days in each month on the average, beiog far more successful than the astrono- mers of London, who have reported an average of eighteen monthly. This striking difiTerence is due to the atmospheric peculiarities of the two cities though doubtless something is to be argued in favor of the extremely simple apparatus used at the Harvard College Observatory. Professor Win- lock estimates that if a similar work were to be undertaken in Washington, there would result, by combining the two series of photographs, a perfect daily series, without any gaps, and one that would contribute much to our knowledsje of the cycle of solar- spot changes, which is believed to exert so decided an influence over meteorological phenomena. FAINT VARIABLE STARS AND ASTEROIDS. Professor Watson, of Ann Arbor, announces as the result of many years' careful study of the faintest visible stars, in his search for new asteroids, the following important conclu- sions: 1. The asteroids are not generally to be classed among the faintest telescopic objects, but are much brighter than the faint stars among which they move. 2. The number of asteroids is probably not imlimited, but, on the contrary, comparatively very restricted, and very possibly does not ex- A. MATHEMATICS AND ASTRONOMY. 61 ceed two hundred. 3. The number of variable stars increases vvith astonishing rapidity among the higher magnitudes. THE NATURE OF THE KIXGS OF SATUEN. M. G. A. Hirn, -well known for his investigations into the dynamical theory of heat, has published a mathematical memoir on the riuo-s of Saturn, and discussed the various con- ditions that have been suggested as possibly contributing to maintain the dynamical stability of that system. Although M. Hirn's results do not materially differ from those already demonstrated by Peirce and Maxwell, yet we recognize the importance of having this additional and per- fectly independent investigation of so difficult a subject. In a recent popular exposition of this subject, M. Hirn gives the present state of our knowledge as follows: 1. Solid rings can not exceed a certain size without breaking. 2. Solid liomogeneous rings are unstable, and must break up into sat- ellites. 3. Non-homogeneous or weighted solid rings are stable, but must have an enormous (imaginary) strength, and therefore can not be permanent. 4. Gaseous or liquid rings can exist ; and such was very probably their original condi- tion ; but. their existence can be only ephemeral, and they must fall toward and join the planets; if Saturn's rings were once fluid, they must long ago have thus disappeared. 5. The rings can only endure as solid fragments of limited size, and separate from each other. Bull. Soc. iVIIist. Nat.^ 1872, 448. THE PLANET VULCAN. This hypothetical planet, in whose existence many still believe (though we understand the evidence on Avhich Le Verrier sought to establish its existence to be very much shaken), has recently appeared, if we may credit Mr. Cowrie, of Hong-Kong, who thinks he saw it on the occasion of its transiting the sun's disk. Singularly enough, there comes from two scood amateur astronomers of the Manchester Phil- osophical Society a note recalling an observation made by them both on the afternoon of the 12 th of March, 1849, when they watched for half an hour the passage of a small black spot across a portion of the sun's disk. The number of ob- servations of this character seem to have slowly increased until, whether or not we believe in Yulcan, we are at least 62 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. admonished to keep a very sharp watch of the solar orb. It is greatly to be desired that the photographs taken at Green- wich and Cambridge be supplemented by a set taken at Melbourne. 12 A, 1873, 475. WORK AT THE EDINBURGH OBSERVATORY. The annual report of Professor C. P. Smyth states that the force of the observatory is now concentrated upon a general star catalogue, to include all the determinations of position made at Edinburgh since the establishment of the observa- tory. In the department of meteorology, there are fifty-five stations from which monthly reports are received. The stand- ard time is sent from the observatory to very many places in Scotland, and in several a noon gun is automatically fired at the exact second. In the city of Edinburgh a large number of clocks are controlled electrically from the central clock at the observatory a system that has been widely spread over Great Britain and the Continent, and is now in very success- ful use in Washington, Boston, and Pittsburgh. The effect of the low state of the barometric pressure of the atmosphere upon the rate of the standard clock seemsto have given much trouble. Like many of the other observatories of Europe, and even of America, Edinburgh is to have a new and large equatorial telescope ; the report states that it is very nearly completed, the main parts being already in position. Singu- lar to state, there appears to be no satisfactory provision made by the government for the proper support of the per- sons who are to use this instrument, and, in Professor Smyth's own words, " it places us in connection with this new equa- torial in a nearly parallel position to that of any unfortunate artillery ofiicer who should have received a big gun, of per- haps the most approved wrought-iron and steel construction in itself, but without means of moving it, without powder and shot, and yet should be expected by the public to be continually firing it with immense success, and at all sorts of objects, throughout the whole year." B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. 63 B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. AMOUNT OF FOKCE DERIVED BY THE EAETH FROM THE SUX'S HEAT. An interesting computation has been made of the amount of force imparted to the earth by the sun's heat. According to the best investigations that have been made, there is re- ceived in one minute enough heat to raise the temperature of five and a half cubic miles of water one degree Centigrade. If, now, we compare this with the work done by a given amount of heat, as utilized in a steam-engine, it will be found that the heat sent to the earth in the sun's rays during the space of one minute is able to do as much work as would be done by two thousand steam-engines of one hundred horse- power each, working continuously for the space of four thou- sand years. , What becomes of this inconceivably great amount of power is worthy of consideration ; and we begin to realize the na- ture of the problems of the future scientists when we reflect that by far the larger part of this heat force expends itself upon the earth in actual work, only a small portion of it being radiated into space. Of course the result accomplished, such as the maintenance of the temperature of the earth, ocean, and atmosphere, the stimulating of animal and vege- table life, etc., etc., must be the equivalent of the power re- tained by our globe. Mitth. natur for sell. Gesellsch.^ Berne, 1871,xxxix. EIVER TEMPERATURES. The United States Signal Corps has recently extended its series of observations in the form of a daily record of the surface and bottom temperature of the rivers and harbors upon which the several stations are situated. This, while of much interest in a meteorological point of view, is also of practical importance in connection with the subject of intro- ducing useful food fishes into the rivers and lakes of the United States, as lately provided for by Congressional enact- ment. It is well known that the possibility of introducing 64 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. salmon into any given stream will depend upon the relation- ship of its temperature during the summer and autumn to the particular species ; some kinds, as the true salmon of the North Atlantic {Salmo salar)^ requiring a summer minimum of at least sixty to sixty-five degrees, while others will bear a higher temperature. SIGNAL-OFFICE KIVER KEPOETS. The army Signal-office has made preparations for a very great extension of its valuable system of reports of the heights of rivers, particularly of all those opening into the Mississippi. Over twenty-five stations are now established at suitable points on these rivers, especially, of course, on the Ohio, Missouri, and Mississippi. They are provided in some instances with automatic self-recording apparatus, and at all other places the observation of the height of the water is taken eight times daily wdien floods are apprehended. By this most beautiful system every wave of high water is accu- rately followed in its course down stream, and the approach of dangerous high floods is easily foretold by the repeated telegraphic reports. The system of river reports, which has been in operation during the past year, has given such uni- versal satisfaction to those navigating the Western waters that the demand for increased facilities can only be met by this new and far more elaborate system of stations. The universal interest and value of the systematic tele- graphic reports of the weather and of the rivers now fur- nished by the army Weather Bureau show what a power the electric telegraph is destined to become when its ramifica- tions shall be still further extended, and the expense of using it cheapened. CRUISE OF THE NEW YORK SCHOOL-SHIP MERCURY. The New York Nautical School-ship Mercury has spent the past winter in deep-sea research, as in a previous season, and, as before, has utilized the opportunities presented in the in- terest of science. Captain Giraud addresses the president of the board of Commissioners of Public Charities and Correc- tion from Rio, under date of January 25, stating some of the points in which he regarded his operations as successful in connection with deep-sea soundings and temperatures. He B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. 65 surveyed a large portion of the so-called " volcanic region " of the Atlantic Ocean, finding the water very deep in that vicinity. Specimens brought up from the bottom appeared to be of undoubted volcanic origin. The Casella-Miller deep- sea thermometer was used on one occasion at a depth of 2040 fathoms, two miles north of the equator, in longitude 22 16' west, and indicated a temperature of 35 Fahr., at 1000 fa- thoms 38, and at the surface 81, the air being 80. During the voyage from the Canary Islands to Rio, the temperature at uniform depths was found to vary only about two de- e'rees. JVew York Herald. EARTHQUAKE WAVES. The self-registering tide gauges of the Coast Survey are doing good work not only in recording tides, but also in catching the fleeting waves produced by earthquakes. One of the first cases of this kind occurred on the Pacific coast in 1854. The great earthquake of Africa, in 1870, produced a wave that traveled in one half of a day to Honolulu ; and in one, two, and three days respectively to San Francisco, Mel- bourne, and Yokohama. It is now proposed to use this simple instrument at a number of points in the Mediterranean Sea as a regular means of recording the frequent earthquakes that occur there, where the systematic daily tides are so slight as to be nearly imperceptible. The annual report of the observatory at Sydney, New South Wales, states that the tide gauge at that port has recorded fewer earthquake waves than that at New Castle (a hundred miles distant), probably owing to the more open harbor of the latter. 3fonthly Notices B. Astronom, Soc,., February., 1873. EATE OF INCREASE OF HEAT IX PENETRATING THE EARTH. A new determination of the rate of increase of heat as we descend into the earth has been lately made by Dunker, and the care with which the experiments were conducted gives much value to his results. The observations were made in an artesian well in Sperenberg, Germany, having a depth of about 3900 feet. The well being supplied with water from several springs, it was necessary to avoid the disturbing in- fluence upon the temperature of the circulating water ; and, in order best to secure this end, a small hole was bored at the 66 ANNUAL EECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. bottom of the larscer bore of the well. This smaller hole was about twenty feet deep ; the self-recording thermometer was placed in it, and the entrance firmly closed. The average of two determinations made in this way gave, after correcting for all known sources of error, 37.24 Reaumur, or 115.79 Fahrenheit, as the temperature of the strata at the depth of the small hole. The measures at lesser de|)ths were taken with, equal care (by effectually stopping, temporarily, the water circulation), and they show that the rate of increase was not uniform, being on the average one degree Centigrade for 27.8 meters of descent, or one degree Fahrenheit for forty-seven feet. Natxir und Leben^ January^ 1873. DISCOEDANCE IX ARCTIC TEMPERATURES. Mr. Dove has lately laid before the Berlin Academy the result of his investigations of the variability of the tempera- ture of the regions bordering on the arctic zone. He states that as yet we have had opportunities for studying the ques- tion only through the observations of the arctic expeditions, and through those made at the few fixed stations in Siberia; but the recent publication of longer series of observations made at stations in Greenland and in Iceland affords new and valuable material, with which he has combined all the tem- perature observations hitherto published by the Smithsonian Institution, and especially those made by Professor Cleave- land at Brunswick, Maine. Mr. Dove finds an astonishing discordance in abnormal seasons between Greenland and Ice- land. For instance, the very cold year 1863 in Greenland had nothing analogous in Iceland ; and so, inversely, the cold spring of 1866 in Iceland was accompanied by a warm spring in West Greenland. This strong contrast of the temperature in two countries so near together seems to him to partly ac- count for the very severe storms that have been generally reported from that region, and particularly those noted by Koldewey in his recent expedition. Mr. Dove then seeks to find something similar in the con- trasts of monthly temperatures in the northern portions of the United States; but the' result is such that he concludes that " the arctic zone possesses a peculiar meteorological sys- tem." He also very distinctly asserts that we can only think of applying corrections to the monthly means of temperatures B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. 67 observed during north polar expeditions and other short pe- riods, in order thus to obtain normal annual means, when we have primarily determined, at least approximately, the form of the isothermal lines for the epoch of the observations. In connection with the preceding, Mr. Dove has made a study of the cold days of February, the so-called February minimum, for a number of European stations, and has shown that this, in Europe as in America, probably results from a cold polar current of air. Monatsherichte^ R. Akad. Berlin^ September and October^ 1872. EAIJSr-FALL IX JERUSALEM. Dr. James Chaplin, who is at present residing in Jerusa- lem, corrects a statement that the rain-fall there for 1863-64 amounted to but 8.84 inches, the actual quantity being some- thing: over 19 inches. The error arose from the use of an im- perfect rain-gauge, and has been corrected from other obser- vations. In reference to the sirocco, he remarks that this is one of the most frequent evils, being especially prevalent in the month of May, and again in September, October, and Novem- ber, just before the setting in of the rains. Its peculiarly depressing effect he considers to be due to the entire absence of ozone, the most careful observations, both of dry paper and that which had been moistened, failing to indicate any discol- oration of the ozone paper. Quarterly Statement^ Jan.^ 1873. EAIX-FALL IX THE UXITED STATES. The extensive work on the rain-fall in the United States, lately published by the Smithsonian Institution, will be in- valuable to engineers and others to whom are referred the great questions of improving the navigation of the rivers of this country. By means of such tables as are given in this volume, a few minutes' computation enables one to determine the area of country that must be drained in order to secure a water supply sufficient for any specified purpose. The engi- neers of Europe have long been sensible of the great practical value of works of this nature, and we have before us a chart of the rain-fall of Switzerland, showing, by carefully drawn isohyetals, the minutest detail of the annual precipitation (including the melted snow of winter). The construction of 68 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. this chart, which is probably preliminary to a far more elab- orate exhibit, is based on the returns during the six years 1864-1869, from the ninety-seven stations of the Switzerland hydrometric commission of the "Naturforschende" Society. A comparison of the data for some of the Swiss lakes with those for the great lakes of America may prove of interest. Thus we have the annual rain-fall for Lake Geneva, 39.4 inch- es ; for Lake Neufchatel, 37.4 ; for Lake Zurich, 46.2 ; for the Boden-See, 43.3 inches. On the other hand, we find from the Smithsonian charts, for Lake Ontario, 32 ; for Lake Erie, 38 ; for Lake Huron, 30 ; Lake Michigan, 30 ; Lake Superior, 28 inches; and for Salt Lake, Utah, 20 inches. The ratio of rain-fall to evaporation, and the resulting vol- ume of water flowing into the rivers, are among the most in- teresting of the questions that come before hydraulic engi- neers. Mr. Benteli, the author of the Switzerland rain-chart, lias studied the subject, and finds that in the area drained by the Aar only eighteen per cent, of the rain-fall is lost by evaporation ; the remainder flows into the river past the city of Aarau. The neighborhood of th^ Grimsel, and of Mount St. Ber- nard, is the region of the heaviest rain and snow fall in all Europe, the annual fall being measured as 98.4 inches. The Smithsonian rain-charts give 80 inches for the extreme north- w^est coast of Washinsfton Territorv, and 60 inches for South- ern Florida, as the points of heaviest rain-fall within the United States. 3Iitth. naturforsch. Gesellsch.^ l^erne^ 18*71, 344. UNVAEYING COUESE OF CIEEUS CLOUDS. It seems to be generally admitted that there are two "cold poles (points of minimum temperature) in the northern hemi- sphere, one in Asia, and the other in North America, and that from these the trade-winds radiate, regulating, as they veer to one side or the other, the changes of the weather. To complete the statement, attention is called to the fact that it is extremely probable that the high cirrus clouds are unaf- fected by the variation in course, between northwest and southeast, which the trade-winds experience on the eastern borders of the two great continents, but preserve the normal direction imparted to them by the rotation of the earth B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. 69 namely, that of the anti-trades and, at a great elevation, continue undisturbed from west or west-southwest to east- northeast. Observations are not complete enough to establish the latter proposition, but numerous concordant statements render it so probable that it seems worthy of the attention of local and other observers. In North America, where the axis around which the wind veers lies decidedly between northwest and southeast, as in Eastern Asia, the fact seems better substantiated than in Europe (can, indeed, be considered as fixed), and the infer- ence is justifiable that the condition on the eastern coast of Asia is similar. Russell verifies by his own observations in Canada, in Washington, the Southern States, and Cuba, the statement of Espy, that in the United States there is an un- varying upper current of air from the Avest. Blodgett asserts that at Philadelphia, at all seasons, a western current can, not unfrequently, be detected by cirrus clouds. In Northern Asia, even on the east coast, no exact information on this point has been supplied, on account of the neglect to notice particularly cirrus clouds. In interior Asia a few definite observations can be given, and on the east coast of Siberia a few at least not contradictory ones, inasmuch as the existence of cirrus clouds has been noted with varying inferior winds, but without oiviiicr their direction. If it should be demon- strated, then, which the writer does not doubt, that the high cirrus clouds, the greatest elevation of which can be placed at 40,000 feet, on the east side of the two cold poles do not take part in the variation of the anti-trades from a west- southwest to southeast direction, but that these elevated masses of ice crystals and flakes continue unaffected in the normal direction imparted by the earth's rotation, the fact will be of the highest importance in giving a more correct exhibition of the total movement of the atmosphere, and lead to the conclusion that the whole depth of the atmosphere does not find the initial and final point of its motion in the region of the greatest cold, but that a very considerable and more elevated portion moves above this, having this point at the geographical pole of the earth. There would be in this . a new proof that the whole atmosphere takes part in the cir- culation between the equator and the poles, and that the cause of the movement is not simply the difference of tem- 70 ANNUAL KECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. peratures, but much more the centrifugal force of the earth's rotation, in consequence of which there exists at the points of maximum velocity, during the night as well as the day, a continuous upward current, of aspiration, of the trade or polar current drawn to this region, and that this air, with the moist- ure contained, must again descend. This may only take place in the polar latitudes, toward which it moves, and which it finally reaches in its normal west-southwest direction, also by force of aspiration, as compensation for the air drawn from those regions. 3 (7, September 30, 1872, 949. INFLUENCE OF FORESTS OX EAIN-FALL. The question as to the influence exercised upon the amount of rain-fall throughout the year by the presence or absence of forests, is beginning to excite much attention, and numer- ous communications on the subject make their appearance in the scientific journals. M. Lemoine, in a paper read before the British Association, remarks that the existence of any influence of this kind must be considered extremely doubtful. In the basin of the Seine it has been shown that forests, as compared with soil coated with grass, have no peculiar influ- ence upon the water-courses. The real function of forests, in his opinion, consists in their protection of tlie soil by pre- venting the earth from being carried away, and in their re- tarding the flow of torrent waters. In fact, in the Alps, the presence of forests prevents the formation of torrents, and the replanting of woods extinguishes torrents already exist- ing ; although, in many cases, merely turfing the soil produces the same effect. In illustration of the influence of vegetation in retarding evaporation from the soil, an experiment was adduced which consisted in sinking two cylindrical jars of the same size into the ground to the depth of four inches, leaving them project- ing one inch above the surface. One of these was placed in a newly cleared plot, and the other where it was partially but not completely protected by the bushes. The same amount of water was placed in each jar, and at the expira- tion of five days it was found that the evaporation from the jar in the open grounds had been more than twice that from the one which was covered. 18 A^ September 6, 1872, 637. B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. 71 DRYING UP OF THE ISLAND OF SANTA CEUZ. The Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club contains a sug- gestive paragraph in reference to the influence of trees upon rain and atmospheric moisture, as shown by the experience of the island of Santa Cruz in the West Indies. This island is said to have been a garden of freshness, beauty, and fertil- ity twenty years ago ; it was covered w^th woods, trees were every w'here abundant, and rains w^ere profuse and frequent. The recent visit of a gentleman who had known the island in its palmier days, revealed a lamentable change, one fourth of the island having become an utter desert. The forests and trees had been cut away, rain-falls had ceased, and the process of desiccation, beginning at one end of the island, had ad- vanced gradually and irresistibly upon the land, until for seven miles it had become dry and barren as the sea-shore. Houses and plantations had been abandoned, and the advance of desolation w\is watched by the people, wholly unable to prevent it, but knowing, almost to a certainty, the time when their own habitations, their gardens and fresh fields, would be a part of the waste. Indeed, the whole island seems doomed to become a desert. This sad result is owing en- tirely, according to the belief of the inhabitants, to the de- struction of the trees upon the island some years ago. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 1872, III., 38. ELECTEIC STORM OF JANUARY 7-8, 1873. Some interesting electric phenomena were noticed on the occasion of a recent storm in the Northwestern States, and as the extended net-W'Ork of telegraph lines affords opportu- nity for studying similar occurrences w^henever they recur, it is to be hoped that attention may be more generally given to the accurate observation of these electric storms. Except- ing a notice in the Chicago Tribune, the only account that we have of the phenomena is that communicated by Mr. Sim- mons to the Chicago Inter-Ocean, of January 22, from which we make the following summary : At 2:25 P.M., January 7, while a severe storm was raging in Minnesota, and a high southwest wind, with light snow and very low temperatures, prevailed in Central Iowa, it was noticed at the telegraph oftices in the latter district that at- 72 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. mospheric currents were interfering with the working of the telegraph lines. These currents increased in intensity to an almost unprecedented extent, and then died away during the evening. At 6:45 P. M. these disturbances were noticed at the offices in the Mississippi Valley separating Iowa from Illinois. At 9:30 P. M. light disturbances were noted at Chicago, and continued at intervals during the night and until the evening of the 8th, when the discharges became very rapid and intense. It was now ascertained that the phenomena had entirely ceased in the MississijDpi Valley, and that the region of disturbance was jirobably central at Chicago and eastward. Here, as before, with two or three exceptions, the effect was confined to wires running due east and w'est, the exceptions being the north and south lines, on which, however, but little interference was noticed. Later in the evening of the 8th, the disturbance was felt at Detroit, Michigan, and "every observation confirmed the opinion" that the central path of the storm extended "from Des Moines, Iowa, due eastward to Detroit, Michigan, nar- rowing its limits north and south as it approached the latter place, after which it rapidly subsided." It is well known that in all these observations there is o-enerally some doubt as to the interpretation of the observa- tions, owing to our ignorance of the state of insulation, etc., of the telegraph wires. In the present case, however, Mr. Simmons appears to have made accurate observations rela- tive to this point, since he states that w^hile the east and west wires were almost exclusively afiected, the known re- sistance and insulation of these lines, in reference to the prop- agation of ordinary voltaic electricity, did not in the least assist to explain the observations. Indeed, he states that the large number of operators and practical telegraph men who witnessed the display quite agree that the effects were entirely different from those experienced during the ordinary auroral storms w^ith which they are familiar. It is therefore probable that the present is a case of at- mospheric electricity as distinguished from that known as ground currents, the latter being connected with auroral dis- plays. While the phenomena of January 7-8 were evidently concomitants of the storm that prevailed from Minnesota to B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. -^s Lake Huron ; and it is perhaps probable that the disturb- ances of the 8th at Chicasfo and Detroit were in a measure independent of those observed on the 7th in Iowa. SIGNAL TELEGKAPHY AND THE HERRING FISHERY. The business men of Eastport, Maine, have succeeded in having a signal station established at that place for the pur- pose of obtaining information that will be of great service in connection with the fishing business, which constitutes its chief staple. A very important branch of trade has lately risen there in what are called "frozen herring." These con- sist of sea-herring {Clupea elongata) of the largest size, which have recently been discovered in great abundance within a circle of twenty miles' radius from the village. They are taken in gill-nets and frozen, and in that state shipped fresh to market, where they bring a good price, the value of the fishery up to the middle of January being estimated at twenty or thirty thousand dollars. In this instance it is of importance that a premonition of the weather be obtained as far in advance as possible, since if, during a cold snap, the weather become suddenly warm, it will be an intimation to close up operations, so as not to have a large stock of un- salable fish on hand ; while, on the contrary, should cold weather be anticipated after a warm spell during the winter, the fishermen would be on the qui vive to make arrangements for taking the earliest advantage of the opportunity. It is also a matter of much moment for such of the boats as start off with their cargoes to market, as well as for those who depend on fishing out at sea on the outside fishing-grounds, to know something of the probabilities for the coming twenty- four or forty-eight hours. RAIN-GAUGE AT SEA. The apparatus used for the determination of the amount of rain-fall on land is not adapted for use upon the sea, but an arrangement has recently been devised by which the rain- gauge is hung like a ship's compass in its gimbals : an open mouth is thus always directed toward the sky. In this way it is hoped that much valuable information will be obtained, which will have an important bearing on the discussion of the subject of general climatology. It is probable that here- D^ 74 ANNUAL KECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. after such gauges will constitute a part of the equipment of every vessel fitted out for scientific purposes. 12 A^ January 16, 1873, 202. DEEANGEMENT OF THERMOMETERS IN CARRYING. It often happens in the transportation of thermometers, esj^ecially if the boxes are jarred, that a portion of the mer- curial column separates and moves toward the end of the tube. This may generally be reunited with that in the bulb by allowing the thermometer to drop from two to three inches in a vertical position upon a card held in the left hand ; or by holding the thermometer in the right hand, and strik- ing the arm {iiot the thermometer) against the palm of the left hand ; or, finally, by whirling the thermometer with care, and not too rapidly, by a cord attached to the end. In many cases, however, the detached column of mercury may be very small, perhaps a degree, or even only half a degree, so that the error it occasions may be referred to inaccuracy in fixing the zero point, and in such cases its weight is not sufficient to enable it to overcome the adhesion to the glass. The fol- lowing method will also meet such cases : Incline the ther- mometer, with the bulb highest, at an angle of 20 to 40, and strike the bulb end gently Avith a flat piece of wood in the direction of the tube. Some of tlie mercury will pass out, fill the whole tube, and unite w^ith the detached portion. Then slowly and carefully change the inclination of the ther- mometer imtil the bulb is so much depressed that the mer- cury barely begins to move toward it, and, as a rule, the whole united column of mercury will flow toward the bulb. A small bubble of air will generally be present at the point where the separation previously took place, but if the incli- nation be carefully changed, as above directed, and jarring entirely avoided, it will remain upon the glass, and the pre- viously detached column will readily pass it. 14 (7, 1872, ccvL, 240. SIGNAL-SERVICE WEATHER BUREAU. We notice in the French journals several statements rela- tive to the Army Signal-office that are quite erroneous. They are to the effect that " the Signal-office was created by the late Commander M. F. Maurv," and that " the United States 13. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. 75 government, at the request of Mr. Maury, established the present system of storm signals." While fully recognizing the debt that the world owes to Mr. Maury, it is evident that in the preceding statements a great injustice is done to the men who really built up the present system of weather probabilities. In reference to this system, it is not too much to say that the published reports and other documents show that Mr. Maury has had nothing to do with it. The Army Signal-office is a purely military institution, and it had no existencer as such until gradually developed during the late civil war by tlie exigencies of war and the genius of General Myer. During this period Mr. Maury, as is well known, was one of the most prominent leaders of the Southern cause. Storm warnings did not form a part of tlie duties of the chief signal officer until the Secretary of War specially intrusted to him the execution of the law passed by Congress in 1870. In the passage of this law Mr. Maury had no part whatever, its framing and advocacy being wholly due to Professor I. A. Lapham and Hon. H. E. Paine, both of Milwaukee, Wiscon- sin. It is, however, to be remembered that the way had been paved for the success of these gentlemen in their public- spirited enterprise not only by the success of the long-estab- lished system of storm signals in Europe, but by the still earlier labors of American meteorologists. It was Redfield who first in America, in 1838, satisfactorily established the law of the j^rogression of storms. Espy, as meteorologist to the Navy, and subsequently to the War Department, showed by his daily weather maps for a number of years that storm prediction was perfectly possible. The Smithsonian Institu- tion had established the first system of telegraphic meteoro- logical reports, and when, after many years, it was discon- tinued. Professor Abbe revived it at Cincinnati in 1869, and by actual daily predictions (which had not been attempted by the Smithsonian) combined the labors of his predecessors into a successful and practically useful undertaking. He has himself narrated the unsuccessful attempts he made to enlist the co-operation of Chicago and other cities in a national system ; but to his correspondent in Milwaukee was reserved the full success of this undertaking. To Professor Lapham must the credit be given of having brought to a most suc- cessful conclusion this Ions; line of efforts. The field of 76 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. Maury's labors was so exclusively upon the ocean that, were he living, he would be the first to correct the errors that have been circulated in France. METEOKOLOGY IN CANADA. The meteorological system of the Dominion of Canada is, as most of the citizens of the United States are aware, in a very prosperous condition, and has many features of the weather bureau of our own country. From the second an- nual report of the superintendent, Professor G. Kingston, of Toronto, we learn that the organization embraced (in January, 1873) one central station, Toronto, seven chief stations, eleven telegraphic reporting stations, and one hundred and twenty- six ordinary stations. Among these last are included thirty- eight light-houses, by the addition of which Professor King- ston has materially added to the value of his net-work of ob- serving stations, which has become one of the best in the world, and is specially valuable in that it supplements the extensive system now under the direction of the War Depart- ment. As most of the observers are volunteers, the entire expense to the government of the maintenance of this system (including the hoisting of warning storm signals) amounted to the small sum of eight thousand dollars. Under the head- ing of " Recent progress and present condition of meteorology in Canada," Professor Kingston says: "Prior to the autumn of 1869 there were but few meteoroloscical observers in the Dominion. . . . Being dissatisfied with a state of affairs so dis- creditable, ... I addressed myself by letter and in person to those actually engaged in meteorological observations, and also to others. . . . The result has been a steady increase in the number of observers, and in the exactness and regularity of the observations. From October, 1869, to the spring of 1871 the meteorological work of Canada was carried on by an organization that Avas strictly voluntary. . The work of organizing new stations, and of compiling returns, was gra- tuitously performed by the director of the Toronto Observa- tory and his assistants. In the spring of 1871 the Legislature of the Dominion recognized the value of these labors by a grant of $5000 for the promotion of meteorological research, and with a special view of preparing the way for establishing a system of storm signals. ... I liave always entertained the B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. 77 , ojiinion that a system of Aveather prognostications would have been placed eventually on a firmer footing if its estab- lishment could have been postponed till greater development had been given to the . . . statistical stations. Had it not been for the action of the United States daring the last three years, the course just indicated by me would have been the wisest. The fact, however, that the United States have in- augurated a very liberal and extensive scheme, and that the observations taken at upward of sixty stations distributed throughout that country can be placed at the disposal of Canada on the easy condition of paying the cost of the tele- grams from Buffalo to Toronto, is a very strong reason why Canada should enter on a work now which in other circum- stances would have been better postponed. . . . With respect to the dispatch of warning signals to Canadian ports ... I have thought it better to make an arrangement with the Signal-office at Washington whereby notices of disturbances which are likely to reach any part of the Dominion are sent to me from Washington. Id Report of Professor Kingston. METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. The extensive system of meteorological stations that at the earnest representations of Humboldt and others was es- tablished throughout the Russian possessions, in tlie year 1830 and subsequently, after continuing unbroken until 1864, was in that year somewhat aifected by the death of Kupffer. His successor, the eminent Kamtz, unfortunately lived but two years too short a time to effect the many improve- ments that he had projected. It has thus been left to Wild to thoroughly reorganize this highly important series of sta- tions. The first volume of observations under the new sys- tem that for the year 1870 has but just been received (the delays incident to the publication of such an immense mass of fiofures are well known to those engrao^ed in similar works). In this, besides the hourly results carefully deduced from the continuous records of the self-resfisterino- instruments at St. Petersburg, there are given, both in detail and in monthly means, the observations made durino' the year at seven sta- tions in Asiatic and thirty-nine stations in European Russia, in addition to those taken by Mr. Fritsche at the observatory in Pekin, China. The introduction gives a very exact account 78 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. of the reliability of the various different series, which is highly- valuable to those wlio have occasion to use either this or the earlier volumes of observations. The altitudes of the stations must necessarily almost always be determined barometrically, and in this important matter the researches of Hann on de- crease of temperature, and the admirable hypsometric tables of Rtihlmann, are uniformly used. INTERNATIONAL WEATHER TELEGRAPHY. Mr. Allison, the meteorological agent of Nova Scotia, has recently communicated to the Scientific Institute at Halifax the following letter from Mr. Scott, the director of the Mete- orological Oflice at London. Mr. Scott says: "The various nations here are establishing centres of their own. These exchange reports daily, and send extra telegrams to each other whenever a storm is reported. Each office then decides for itself whether or not it will warn its own coast. This is the plan we have introduced, and it is adopted by Holland and Norway ; Sweden and Denmark are also about to take it up, and Russia will probably follow suit. The French system of extensive generalization gives a magnificent view of the general condition, but does not enable you to draw conclusions for local storms and w^eather. It is also perfectly impossible for a distant central station to keep its observei'S in check. Telegraphic errors are our hete noh\ and it is ex- pensive work asking for repetitions over long lines ; conse- quently the French reports are seldom if ever corrected before publication, and errors of an inch sometimes appear in their charts, and are never subsequently corrected. The storm signal we use is the drum, and we hang up under it, in a frame, the order to hoist it." Proc. Nova Scotia Sci. Inst.^ IV., 165. METEOROLOGY IN THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. The progress of the science of meteorology has of late years been so decided as to warrant the establishment of the exten- sive systems of storm warnings that are now in operation in every civilized country of the northern hemisphere from India to America. It is therefore with the greatest pleasure that we chronicle the establishment of a National Meteorological Bureau in the Argentine Republic of South America one B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. 79 that will, it may be hoped, eventually become a telegraphic storm-warning system. A letter of February 4 from Dr. B. A. Gould, a distinguished American astronomer, and now the director of the observatory at Cordova, gives the following information on this point : "Here the meteorology and climatology of the vast tract of country from the tropics to Cape Horn, east of the Andes, has remained until this time almost unknown, notwithstand- ing the singular and very exceptional character of the atmos- pheric relations. Although reluctant to spare any time from the astronomical investigations which brought me here, I have been so much impressed with the absolute scientific necessity of a series of meteorological observations in the vast territory of the Argentine Republic that I have procured the passage of a law establishing a National Meteorological. Bureau, and have assumed the charge of it until it can be properly organ- ized and. confided to other hands. Within a few months I hope to have something like fifteen to twenty observers at work, making three observations daily ; and in another year I am not without hopes of having double that number engaged in the work, from the slopes of the Andes and the borders of Bolivia down to the confines of Patagonia. The government has assigned |6500 this year for the purchase and transporta- tion of instruments. . . . The weather causes us (astronomers) much trouble. This is the ninth consecutive rainy or over- clouded day^not sun, moon, nor star having been visible in all that time. And yet, before selecting Cordova as the site of the observatory, I had been assured that I might count upon 320 clear nights in the year ! But 120 would have been nearer the mark." DOVE ON CLIMATE. The reliability of the commonly accepted views of Dove as to the possibility of obtaining from a short series of observa- tions the true average climatic conditions, by applying to the given series corrections for non-periodic changes deduced for some neighboring station, has recently been investigated by a study of the observations made at Chiswick and in London since 1826, the material for which has only lately been pub- lished. As this is the first attempt to firmly establish the truth of the views Dove has long maintained, it is interest- 80 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. ing to fully consider the conclusions which he thus sums up : "From this investigation it results that if in the deter- mination of annual mean temperature and its periodic varia- tions the influence of the local peculiarities of the place of ob- servation can not be recognized, then in the determination of the non-periodic variations of temperature in the neighboring stations its influence will be so unimportant that it can be neglected, presuming throughout that there is no important difterence of altitude in the stations. " In my investigations into non-periodic variations, I have always referred the deviations of individual years to secular mean values derived from a very long series of years, which secular means were determined for the same years for the stations under examination. Since for but too few stations there exist these long series of observations, it was necessary to find a method of deriving secular means for the stations em- bracing a few years of observation, such as would have been given by a long and simultaneous series. I have, therefore, for the neighboring so-called normal stations, for which I had a long series of observations, computed the means resulting from the use of only the same years as those for w^hich ob- servations at a short-period station were available. The dif- ference between this mean and the secular mean gave a cor- rection to be applied to the mean for the secondary station, in order to obtain for it a number corresponding very nearly to what would have been its secular mean." This process im- plies the assumption that the non-periodic variations of the two neighboring stations were identical. The present inves- tio-ation contains a strikino: confirmation of the correctness of this method of procedure, now so generally applied. A communication has been made to the Academy dei Lin- cei, of Rome, by M. Tarry, giving the results of his personal experience and investigations into the connection between the cyclonic storms and the showers of sand that frequently visit Southern Europe. M. Tarry, after traveling as secretary to the French Mete- orological Society into Northern Africa and the Desert of Sahara, and having consulted the files of the Daily Weather Bulletin of the Paris Observatory, believes himself to have established the fixct that Avhenever a cyclone passes south- ward from Europe over the Mediterranean Sea into Africa B. TEURESTUIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. 81 (as some few of them do every season), it then returns north- Avard or northwestward, and transports the sand which in the desert formed a sand-storm to the southern coasts of Europe as a sand-shower of oreater or.less duration. The satisfactory investigation of this subject is much im- peded by the absence of barometric observations on the southern shores of the Mediterranean ; and to remedy this defect, M. Tarry has recently established new meteorological stations at Mogadore, Morocco ; Terceira, Madeira ; and even in the interior of the Sahara. IXFLUEXCE OF FORESTS ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE GROUXD. The Bavarian jjhysicist Ebermayer has investigated the in- fluence of forests on the climate of the neio-hborhood as shown by the numerous observations recorded in that king- dom. Amonoj his conclusions are the following: results as to the temperature of the ground, as determined by thermome- ters sunk to depths of one and six inches, and of one, two, three, and four feet. For the upper layer of earth, within one foot of the surface, the minimum monthly iean temper- atures occur both in open and in wooded regions in the month of January ; only on the high mountains does the lowest temperature occur in February. The temperature increases from February on, until its maximum in July ; at the liigh stations only does the maximum occur in August. From July or August the temperature decreases to January or Feb- ruary. To the agricultural interests it is especially impor- tant to note that the monthly increase of temperature is most rapid in May, and is nearly as great in April ; it is least in June and July. Concerning the strata lower than one foot, Ebermayer finds that the monthly increase in temperature is greater in June and July than it is in the upper stratum. The loss of temperature is, in the upper stratum, most rapid in November and October, and least in the coldest weather in January and February. In forest-covered places, the low- est temperature occurs in February, and continues to June, during which interval the ground is cooler than the air; in July and August the ground is somewhat warmer than the air. The greatest difference between the temperature of free and forest land occurs in May, and the least in June. The D2 82 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. fluctuations in forest land are less than in open ground. The influence of the forest in preventing the cooling of the ground by the radiation of its heat is most noticeable in Oc- tober and November, and least in January and February. METEOROLOGY IN HAVANA. The recent establishment of a signal station at Havana, Cuba, brings to notice a number of meteorological observa- tions that have been made at the Jesuit College in that city during tlie past twenty-five years. The regular publication of these observations and the deductions that may be drawn from them lead to the conclusion that science will receive very valuable aid from this station in the West Indies. The prevailing wind in this region never deviates more than a few degrees from the east. The total number of rainy days in the year is on the average one hundred. Numerous coin- cidences have been observed between mascnetic disturbances and local storms or hurricanes, also between the former and auroras, visible perhaps in distant lands. On the other hand,- very frequently tlie records at Havana show remarkable magnetic pei>turbations that have not been recorded by the photographic apparatus at Greenwich, England. The ampli- tude of the daily barometric range is least in June and July, and greatest in the winter months. Fourteen years of ob- servations have been insufticient to determine any certain law respecting the j-ears of hurricanes. They are, however, as is well known, far more frequent from July to January than during the other half of the year. A careful investiga- tion of the terrible hurricanes of October, 18*70, leads the Rev. R. P. B. Vines to the conclusion that the winds circulat- ing around the centre of the cyclone describe a circle, and the whole cyclone describes a curve on the earth's surface, such as would be given by wrapping a spiral around a parab- ola, the folds of the spiral being closest at the apex of the curve. The rate at which the vortex of the cyclone of the '7th of October crossed the island of Cuba was only four miles an hour. The second storm, of the 19th of October, began moving at the rate of nine and a half miles, and in- creased to twenty miles an hour. The discharges of electric fluid were very intense, and at Cardenas an appearance sim- ilar to the aurora borealis was visible for ten minutes. The B. TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS AND METEOROLOGY. 83 magnetic needles were very much disturbed. The rising of the sea under the centre of the cyclone is attributed by Vines to the low barometer prevailing there, to which also he attributes certain slight shocks of earthquake, due to the violent expansion of gases confined within the cavities that abound in the island. 12 A, 1873, 295. ox THE SOUKCE OF ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. In a recent number of the journal of the Austrian Meteor- ological Society, Muhry has contributed somewiiat to a better understanding of the obscure subject of atmospheric electric- ity, by considering it in reference to its geographical distri- bution. He maintains that the distribution over the earth's surface of the quantity of electricity is in general parallel with the distribution of temperature ; it increases and di- minishes with the latter, as well in reference to the earth's surface as in reference to the time of the year and the day. The insolation of the earth is to be considered as the source of the atmospheric electricity : its origin lies in the insulat- ing stratum, and it is in this respect to be considered as ter- restrial and not celestial. Atmospheric electricity diminishes as we go from the equator to either pole, and it therefore does not depend on precipitation of vapor, but on tempera- ture. Terrestrial magnetism increases in force as we ap- proach the poles. Electricity is strongest in dry, hot deserts. Contrary to the theories of Dellmann and of Peltier, Mtihry holds that aqueous vapor is merely the conductor, or rather convector, bearing the electricity into higher regions. He suggests that it is more important to meteorology to observe the quantity than the kind of electricity, and that the simple straw electrometer of Volta will suffice, instead of the more delicate and complicated instruments that have been deemed necessary. The most important problems that are now re- maining to be solved are, he thinks, the details of the geo- graphical distribution in reference to latitude, longitude, and dry and moist climates. Zeitsclmft fur Meteor olorjie^ 3Iarch, 1873,129. :-' THE ADIRONDACK STATE PARK. The Commissioners of the'State Parks of the State of N'ew York w^ere directed at a recent session of the Legislature to 84 ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. inquire into the expediency of vesting in the state the title to the lands forminsr the Adirondack wilderness, and convert- ing the same into a public park. After a careful considera- tion of the subject, they report very earnestly in favor of the proposition, their arguments as to its great importance being unanswerable. They show that while the forests may not necessarily increase the amount of rain-fall in the country, they yet equalize the distribution of the water so as to make it more serviceable for the purposes of agriculture, manufact- ures, and commerce. The Adirondack region is one particularly important in this respect, being the highest part of Northern New York, the streams of which, starting in the forests, flow to all points of the compass, the most important being the Hudson. The region, it is true, is in many j^arts very rocky, but these rocks are covered with a dense growth of moss (sometimes to the depth of several feet), and the whole region is heavily timbered, with the exception of the summits of the highest peaks, and the water at the surface is thus held as by a sponge ; and hence, however violent the rain-fall, the moist- ure is given off gradually through springs, so as to be equal- ized to a great extent throughout the year. Under these circumstances freshets in the mountains are of comparatively rare occurrence, while at the same time the level of the watei* varies much less than would be the case if the opposite con- ditions prevailed. If, now, the timber be cut off and the underbrush removed, the surface will be exposed to the action of the sun, and its moisture rapidly exhaled into the atmosphere, instead of draining off in the form of sj^rings and rivulets. The falling rain, too, and the melting snows of spring, would pass off much more rapidly, producing floods and causing great dam- age, but soon running oft", and in a short time leaving the streams below their natural level. The amount of wild land in the Adirondack wilderness is estimated at 1,727,000 acres, or about 2703 square miles. The market value of this property is very slight, and in most cases is now represented by the worth of the timber and t