1 « *. « ^ 0 0 % « # # • • ♦ 4 • ft • p^. ^ OISTE HUNDRED YEARS' PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES: GIVING, IN A HISTORICAL FORM, THE VAST IMPROVEMENTS MADE IN AGRICULTURE ; CULTIVATION OF COTTON AND SUGAR ; COMMERCE ; TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION ; STEAM ENGINE ; MANUFACTURE OF COTTON, WOOLEN, SILK, PAPER, FIRE-ARMS, OUTLERY, HATS, CARRIAGES AND COACHES, PLATED WARE, LEATHER, BOOTS AND SHOES, CLOCKS AND WATCHES, PINS, REFINED SUGAR, GLASS, AND INDIA RUBBER ; FISHING BUSINESS ; FUR AND FUR TRADE; HUMANITARIAN INSTITUTIONS, ETC., ETC. ; WITH A LARGE AMOUNT OF STATISTICAL INFORMATION, SHOWING THE COMPARATIVE PROGRESS OF THE DIFFERENT STATES WITH EACH OTHER, AND THIS COUNTRY WITH OTHER NATIONS. WITH AN APPENDIX ENTITLES MARVELS THAT OUR GRANDCHILDREN WILL SEE; OR, ONE HUNDRED YEARS' PROGRESS IN THE FUTURE. bEINQ AN ESTIMATE OP THE VAST INCREASE OP POPULATION, WEALTH, GROWTH OP CITIES, AND DEVELOPMENT OP ALL BRANCHES OP INDUSniV, DEDUCED FROM FACTS AND FIGURES OP THE PAST ONE HUNDRED TEARS, WITH REMARKS ON THE PROSPECTIVE INFLUENCE OF INDIVIDUAL AND CORPORATIVE MONOPOLIES ; CONFUCT BETWEEN CAPITAL AND LABOR ; INCREASE OP PROTECTIVE UNIONS ; ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY ; EXHAUSTION OF PUBUC LANDS ; GREAT ADVANCE IN REAL ESTATE, &C. ; WITH REFLECTIONS ON THE SOCLIL, POLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS CHANGES WHICH WILL ENSUH FROM THE TRANSFERENCE OF THE GOVERNING POWER FROM THE ANGLO-SAXON RACE TO THE TEUTONIC, CELTIC, AND SCANDINAVIAN RACES OF EUROPE, AND MONGOUAN, MALAY, AND AFRICAN RACES ; WITH EXAMPLES FROM ANCIENT AND MODERN BISTORT OF THE EFFECT OP SUCH CHANQES OP POPULATION ON THE INSTITUTIONS OF THE OLD WORLD. By Eminent Literary Men, WaO BAVX KADC TBI SUBJECTS OK WHIOH THBT HAVE WBmBN THEI& 8PECL4L 8IUDT. EMBELLISHED WITH TWO HUNDRED AND EIGHTY ENGRAVINGS, Bxecuted by the First Artists ia the Country, Illustrating the Progress of the various Interests treated oC FXJRNISHEr^ BY -flLOENTS ONlLiY. HARTFORD, CONN.: HENRY HOWE, CINCINNATI, O. 1871. m^m^m THIS ENaRAVING SHOWS THE BEST Bt&k jof 'gml iott fngraliing in % ilm at % ^m'xm Ittjutotimt. THB FANCY TITLE PAGE EXGEAVED BY THE NEW YORK BANK NOTE COMPANY, 50 WALL STREET, N. Y., SHOWS THE PERFECTION TO WHICH THE ART HAS ATTAINED. THIS IS ONLY A TAIR SAMPLE OP THE GREAT IMPROVEMENT IN NEARLY EVERY BRANOO OP INDUSTRY. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eight hundred and seventy, BY L. STEBBINS, In the oflfice of the Clerk of the District Court of the United States for the District of Conn. GIFT actios SUBJECTS AND AUTHORS. PEOGRESS IN AGEICULTURE: Giving an account of the early settlement of this country, with the attendant hardships and privations ; early modes of cultivating the soil ; rapid advance of settlements ; im- provements in Agricultural Implements ; in breeds of Stock, as Horses, Cattle, Sheep, Swine, Poultry, and Bees ; Cultivation of Wheat, Corn, Rye, Buckwheat, Barley, Po- tatoes ; various kinds of Grasses ; Hops, Flax, Hemp, Tobacco, Silk, Fruits, &c. ; the Lumber Business, together with a large amount of statistical matter. By CHARLES L. FLINT, Seoretary Massachusetts Board of Agriculture ; Author of " Grasses" "Forage Plants,'''' "Milch Cows and Dairy Farmirtg" So., <&o. CULTIVATION OF COTTON: Its importance in Commerce, Cheap Lands, Labor, &c., &c. By PROF. C. F. McCAY, hie of Cohimbia College, 8. C. STEAM ENGINE, Its invention, various improvements, manufacture, and uses, with reference to its influence upon the industry of the country, in its application to manufactures. By J. C. MERRIAM, Editor and Proprietor of the " American Engineer." COMMERCE AND TRADE, Colonial Trade, Imperial Restriction, Emancipation of Inhabitants, Changed Interest, Manufactures, Course of Trade, Speculation, Revulsion, Bankrupt Law, English Free* Trade, Revolution in France, Farmers, Gold, Ships, Tonnage, Navigation Laws, &c. IMPROVEMENTS IN THE MEANS OF TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION, Including Common Roads, Turnpikes, M'Adam, Plank, and Railroads, River and Ocean Steamers ; giving a history of their origin, progress, and influence upon the growth of the country ; their extent, construction, cost, &c. ivi8D3553 Iv SUBJECTS AND AUTHORS. MANUFACTUEES Of Cotton, "Woollen, Paper, Leather ; Boots and Shoes, Fire- Arms, Cutlery, Carriages and Coaches, Clocks and "Watches, Electro-plated Ware, Pins, Refined Sugars, Silk, Fire- Proof Safes, Bank-Locks, Glass, India-Rubber, Sewing Machines, Musical Instruments : showing the various improvements made by machinery and other means of manufacture, the extent of operations and value of productions, &c., &c. BUILDING, BUILDING MATERIALS, FISHING INTERESTS, AND FLOUR MILLS. By THOMAS P. KETTELL, JFbr many years Editor of S'unfs ^'Merehants^ Magazine^'* and Author of va/rious Statistical Worhs^ ''History of the Great Rebellion^'^ duo. APPENDIX. By L. p. BROCKETT, M.D. Author of " Woman's Work in the Civil War," « Men of Our Day,** Editorial contributor to " Appleton's Cyclopedia," &c PREFACE It has been said that history, as generally written, is but an account of the wars and contentions by which dynasties have striven for the mastery of na- tions. It imparts little or no information in respect to the social condition or material progress of the people themselves. It is true that the means of pre- serving such information have never before existed in the shape of those print- ing facilities which at this day place every variety of intelligence within the reach of the poorest classes. These facilities are themselves among the won- ders that have attended the progress of the American people during the past eighty years. In that period a nation has been born, and grown to unexam- pled power and place among the nations of the earth. Inasmuch, however, as that the nature, the institutions, and the administration of the American nation are different from all others, so must its history be in an entirely different style. K there are no regal intrigues to chronicle or mili- tary exploits to recount, there are more lasting triumphs in every useful science to record. K we have no Alexander, or Caesar, or Bonaparte, or Wellington, to shine on the stormy pages of our history, we have such names as Franklin, "Whitney, Morse, and a host of others, to shed a more beneficent lustre on the story of our rise. The means by which a few poor colonists have come to excel all nations in the arts of peace, and to astonish the people of Europe with their achievements through the development of their inventive genius, are true sub- jects for a history of the United States. Such a history is now for the first time presented to the American people. In its preparation no pains or expense has been spared in the view of making it perfectly reliable, and it is believed that a work has been produced which will be standard on the subject. When the War of Independence was finished, the American people, free on their own soil, turned their quick intellect and undivided attention to the great object of improvement, material and mental, and they have wrought out re- sults that have become not only the admiration but the exemplar of all nations. The great genius of the people manifested itself in the invention of labor-saving machines^ because labor was scarce and dear. The steam engine was adopted, Vl PREFACE. improved, and applied to every branch of labor. It was applied to navigation, to locomotion, and to manufacturing in all its branches, great and small. In- ventions were introduced in all possible branches of manufacturing by which labor was saved. It is probable that one man now produces as much by the aid of machines as one hundred did formerly. In other words, that inventive genius has increased manufacturing production a hundredfold. At the same time a vast continent has been settled ; and here again has inventive genius supplied machinery as a substitute for farm laborers, and one man may, by their aid, harvest a large surplus above his family wants. These machines have be- come the models for Europe. This vigor of production has enabled the con- struction of as many miles of railroads as all Europe put together. The telegraph has been invented for transmission of intelligence, and more miles of it used than in all Europe. In ship-building, the American improvements have outstripped the boasted wooden walls of old England, and given the model to the world. Their active enterprise has won the foremost rank in foreign commerce, and covered the in- land waters with more steam tonnage than all other nations possess. The cities of America have sprung up with magic growth, and increased with marvellous vigor. There is no example in history where* so many large cities have been built in a similar period. In producing a carefully written history of all these events, a vast amount of labor and research has been gone through to collate reliable statistical matter. Every effort has been used to place the results in a clear and attractive view, so as to make the reader master of every branch of the subject, and enable him to speak understandingly of his country's triumphs. To this end a great expense has been incurred for engravings illustrative of the various industries: It is believed that the work now offered to the public is the most complete history of a nation's progress ever written. CONTENTS. AaRICTJLTURE. iNTRODtJCTORT REMARKS 19 First Settlers 19 James River Settlement, Virginia 19 Plymouth Colony 19 Stock of early Settlers 20 Introduction of Clover in England, 1633 20 Beef and Mutton, same date 20 Early Agricultural Implements 20 Customs of the Indians 21 Indians' method of clearing Forests 21 Indians instruct the Enghsh how to cultivate Com 21 Indians' mode of storing Corn 21 First sight of Ships 22 Low condition of Agriculture before the Revolution 22 Raisings and Huskings of early times 22 Early Settlers manufacture their Garments. . 22 Courtship and Marriage 23 Number of Newspapers 23 Prejudice against housing and milking Cows in Winter 23 Emigrating West meanmg Western New York 24 Associated and Legislative Effort 24 Letter of Washington to Sir John Sinclair. . 24 South Carolina Agricultural Society 25 Massachusetts do do 25 First Agricultural Exhibition in 1809 25 Effects of Agricultural Societies 26 t'ARM Implements 26 Jack at aU Trades 21 Ploughs in Virginia in 1617 21 Thirty-seven Ploughs in Massachusetts in 1637 27 PAOB Wooden Forks 27 Description of Ploughs 30 Modern Improvements in Ploughs 30 Ten Millions saved in Ploughing 30 First Patent for Cast Iron Ploughs 31 Thomas Jefferson on Ploughs 31 Massachusetts Plough Manufactories 31 The Harrow, Cultivator, Grubbers, &c 32 Sickle and Cradle 32 Reapers and Mowers 33 Horse Rake 36 Malthus on Population 36 Trial of American, Enghsh, and French Threshing Machines 36 Raising of Stock 37 First Stock imported 37 Crossing of different Breeds of Cattle 38 Fodder for Cattle in Virginia 38 Cattle in lUinois in 1682 39 Stock Raising in England 39 ■Large Prices for Improved Stock 40 Hereford and Devon Breeds 40 Methods of improving the Breeds of Cattle . . 4r Milch Cows 42 Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois Cattle . 47 18,378,907 head of Cattle in 1850 47 Animals slaughtered in 1850 worth $111,703- 142 47 Importing Choice Stock 48 Ohio Company for importing, Capital $9,200.. 48 Short Horns, Jerseys, Ayrshires 49' Value of Cattle in Ohio in 1857, $11,315,560 50 Average number lbs. Butter per Cow in differ- ent states 51 Average number lbs. Cheese 51 Number of Cows per inhabitant 51 Stock Raising in Southern States 53 CONTENTS. PA6E Horses 52 Koads, Mails at four miles per hour 52 Speed desired in Horses 52 First Horses imported by Columbus 53 Wild Horses Descendants of Spanish Breeds 53 Demand for Fast Horses 53 The Morgan and Black Hawk 54 Horseback Riding in the South 54 Number of Horses m 1850, 4,336,119, not in- cluding Cities and Large Towns 54 Sheep 59 First Imported Sheep 59 "Wool Two DoUars per pound 59 The Dog Law 60 Tennessee Wool takes the Premium at the World's Fair 60 Great Britain produces 275,000,000 lbs. Wool annually 60 Wool of the South, West and North 63 Swine and Pork 63 First Swine imported 63 Improvement in Breeds of Swine 64 Native Hogs of the West 64 Swine of the South, West and North 65 Manner of killing Hogs 65 Pork Packing 66 Lard OU 67 Quantity of Pork packed in Cincinnati for twenty-seven years 67 Number of Hogs killed in Western States. . 67 Products of the Soil 68 Indian Com, , 68 Indian Mythology 68 Early Exports of Corn. 69 Increased Exports of Com since 1820 70 Com produced in France and Russia 70 1,000,000,000 bushels Corn in 1855 70 Corn exported from 1851 to 1858 71 England imports $225,000,000 worth of Grain 71 Wheat 72 Samples of Wheat sent to Holland in 1626 . . 72 Damage to Wheat by Blast, Insects, &c.. . . . 73 Raising Wheat in New England 73 Exports of Wheat and Flour 74 French Settlements in the West 74 Soldiers of the Revolution settle in lUinois. . 75 Chicago Grain Depot 75 Grain Store-houses of Illinois Central Rail- road 76 Agricultural Products Sixteen Hundred Mil- hons annually 76 Agricultural Interests four-fifths of Taxes in New York State 77 Wheat produced South, West and North. . . 77 PAGE Wheat in Califomia 77 Production of other Grains 77 Rye, Oats, Buckwheat 78 Buckwheat raised South, West and North. . 78 Clover and Grass seed 79 Potatoes 79 Peas and Beans 1^ Grass and Hay Crop 79 Timothy found by Mr. Herd in a Swamp, taken to Maryland and Virginia by Timothy Hanson 80 Yalue of Hay Crop 80 Hay consumed per head of Cattle in difier- ent States 80 Culture of Fruit 81 First Apples in this Country 81 First Horticultural Society 81 The Nurseries of Western New York 82 Orchards in the South 82 Peaches in the South 82 Fruit in California 83 Wine in do 83 Imports of Fruits which may be grown in California 83 Thousand Dollars worth of Pears on one acre 84 Orchard Products of 1850 84 Fruit Books 84 Pears imported from France in 1851 84 Culture of Tobacco 85 Columbus presented with a Cigar 85 French Revenue from Tobacco 85 Tobacco at Forty Cents per pound 86 Exports of Tobacco 86 Tobacco raised South, West and North 87 Manufacture of Cigars 87 Culture op Hops 88 Hops introduced as early as 1828 88 Hops Raised South, West and North 89 Flax and Hemp 89 Quantity raised South, West and North 90 Culture of Silk. 90 Bee Culture 90 Poultry 90 Lumber Business 91 Great Yariety of Trees 91 New Settlers 91 The Lumbermen in the Forest 92 Rafting Business 93 Lumbering in Maine 94. Kinds of Lumber 94 The way Lumber is sold 95 Lumbering at Green Bay 96 Chicago Lumber Market 96 Agricultural Literature 97 CONTENTS. PAGK by Jared EUiot 91 The American Farmer 91 Various Agricultural Papers 98 Agricultural Books 98 Agricultural Colleges 99 Chemistry in aid of Agriculture 99 Guano as a Fertilizer 100 Two Million Tons Gruano from Chincha Islands 100 Thb Prospect of Agriculture in the Country 101 Comparison with other Countries 101 Number of Farms in the United States 102 Remarks of Daniel Webster 102 COTTON CULTURE. Capital and Labor 103 Early Exports of Produce 104 Labor in Comparison with Europe 105 Cotton great Export Article 106 Trade with Brazil 107 Cotton, Rice and Tobacco South 107 Production and Prices of Cotton 108 Machinery for Spinning Cotton 108 Steam Engine Important in Cotton Manufac- turing 109 Early Manufactures in England 109 Cotton Trade of France 109 Comparative Consumption of Cotton 110 Cotton found by Columbus 110 Sea Island Cotton ... Ill Whitney Cotton Gin Ill Vexatious Law Suits 113 Increase of Cotton from 1820 to 1830 114 Prices of Cotton decline 114 Decline in Shipping Tonnage of Charleston . . 114 Rice Culture 115 Railroads in the South 115 Cotton Factories in the South 115 Monopoly of the Market — Slave Labor... . 116 Limit of Sea Island Cotton 116 Cotton in various Countries 117 Paper read before the Society of Arts 118 Experiment with American Cotton in India. 118 Picking Cotton 119 Slave Labor 119 Humanity of the Master 119 Maine Liquor Law among Slaves 120 Ploughing in February 120 Cultivating Cotton 121 Distribution of LaboT among Whites and Blacks 121 Slaves Marry and are given in Marriage. ... 121 Cotton and Gold support high Tariff 122 Northern Furniture in Southern Houses. ... 122 Northern Books do do ,.123 PAQ-B SUGAR CULTIVATION AND CONSUMPTION. Cane first introduced in Louisiana 127 Five kinds of Cane 127 Mode of Cultivating 128 Sugar Mills , 128 Quantity Sugar produced per acre 129 Consumption of Sugar in the United States. . 129 Maple Sugar ^ 130 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. Colonial Trade, &c 132 Rapid Development 132 Early Settlers and Imperial Government 133 Colonists forbidden to Coin Money 133 Early Manufactures 133 The Colonies forbidden to Manufacture 133 Report of Parliamentary Committee on Co- lonial Manufactures and Trade 133 West India and American Rum 135 Imports and Exports of 1770 136 Burdens of the Colonies 137 The Revolutionary War 137 Paper Currency 138 Trade with Great Britain from 1784 to 1790. 138 Insurrection in St. Domingo 139 Stephen Girard 139 Jay's Treaty 139 Table Imports and Exports from 1790 to 1807 140 'Mr. Hamilton; Secretary of Treasury, Report 141 Table of Exports 141 American Manufactures 142 Table of Tonnage, Exports and Imports, from 1808 to 1820 142 The Embargo 143 National Debt at close of the War of 1812 . . 143 . Increase of Population, Wealth, &c., from 1791 to 1820 144 Changed Interests, Manufactures, &g 144 Table of Imports and Exports from 1821 to 1839 145 Capital employed in Cotton Manufacture in 1830 ., 147 Table Imports and Exports from 1831 to 1840 147 Large Fire in New York in 1835 148 Two Hundred Millions sent West to start Banks 151 The Panic of 1837 151 United States Bank 151 United States Bankrupt Law 152 Table of Imports and Exports from 1841 to 1850 153 Famine in Ireland 153 French Silks in Tricolors 154 CONTENTS. Gold discovered at Capt. Sutter's Fort 154 Nine millions Grold received from California in 1850 154 Exportation of Gold depreciating 154 Six hundred million dollars of Gold receiv- ed from California from 1850 to 1860 155 Emigrants bring in $251,805,400 Gold from 1850 to 1860 155 Five hundred million dollars expended in land operations from 1850 to 1860 155 Failure of Corn crops in Europe 155 Table of Exports and Imports from 1851 to 1860 156 Wheat crop of 1850 equal to 22,000,000 barrels flour 156 Exports of Agriculture from 1850 to 1856 156 Table of Exports for periods of ten years. . 15*7 The area of Great Britain 157 Lands sold and given for public works 157 Quantities of Corn and Pork exported to Great Britain from 1840 to 1858 158 Imports of Cotton from India 158 Internal production of wares. 159 Yalue of Manufactures and Agricultural productions 159 The firms in business in 1857 159 Exchanges at the Clearing House, New York 160 Growth of the U. S 160 Ships — Tonnage — Navigation Laws 161 Two ships to do the work of one 161 Yeasels built in the several Provinces in 1771 163 Bounties on Fisheries 162 Tables showing tonnage of Shipping from 1789 to 1858 163 Cotton as Freighting 163 Measure of tonnage 163 Effect of Mexican and English wars in China on trade 163 Favorable treaty between the United States • and China 164 Caleb Cushing robbed of his Baggage on his way home from China vid Mexico. . . 164 British and French Expedition from Yarna to the Crimea 164 First arrival of a Steamer from England . . 164 Table showing the different Lines of Steam- ers between Europe and U. S 164 Table showing the number and names of Ocean Steamers lost 165 Growth of Steam service in the interior . . 165 Keel -boats on the Ohio River 165 First sea-going Brig built on the Ohio River 165 ' PAOB First Steamboat built for the Ohio River. . . 165 Territory drained by the Ohio 166 Opening of Erie Canal in 1825 166 Table showing the number, kinds, &c., of Yessels navigating the Lakes in 1858. . . 166 Losses of Screw Propellers from 1848 to 1856 166 Lake Cities, their rapid growth 166 Lopez Propeller 167 Ship-building at the Lake ports for Liver- pool 16*7 Ship-building, Clipper model 167 Tonnage owned in U. S. in 1860 168 Table of National Exports from 1800 to 1860 168 TRAYEL AND TRANSPORTATION. Early Roads, Post Roads, &c 171 Gen. Washington as an Engineer 173 Stock of Dismal Swamp Canal 173 Statistics of Mail Service from 1791 to 1859. 174 Country Roads 175 Charcoal do 176 Plank do 176 Turnpike do 176 Macadam do i76 Roads in Ohio 177 Cumberland Road 177 Coasters, Steamboats, Canals. 178 Sloop experiment 178 Fulton's Steamer Clermont 179 The first Steamer Hell Gate 179 Progressive speed of Steamers from 1811 to I860 180 Flat Boats on the Mississippi isi First Steamboat on the Ohio 18I Time of passage from New Orleans to St. Louis reduced from 120 to 3 days 183 Increase of Steam Tonnage on the Western Rivers from 1842 to 1860 183 Ground broken for the Erie Canal 184 Early Canal Projects 185 Loss of Water in Canals by leakage 186 Transportation from Buffalo to New York, $100 per Tun ' 186 Increase of Steam Tonnage on the Lakes from 1841 to 1860 137 Opening of Lumber Trade of Western New York 188 List of Ohio Canals igg John Q. Adams and Charles Carroll turn first earth for Canals i89 List of Important Canals 190 CONTENTS. PAGE Total receipts from New York Canals 190 Eaely Railroads, Land Grants, &c 191 First Railroad in the United States 192 Massachusetts "Western Railroad 193 Process of Railroad Building 195 Cost per mile of Running Locomotives 196 Earnings of New York Central Railroad from 1853 to 1859 198 Erie Railroad chartered 201 Receipts and Expenditures of Erie Railroad. 202 Pennsylvania, Baltimore and Ohio Railroads. 203 Georgia Railroads 205 Illinois Central Railroad 205 Land Department of lUinois Central Railroad 201 Table showing the Land Grants to the sev- eral States 201 Railroads from Maine to Louisiana, with the names of different Corporations 208 Michigan Railroads 208 Missouri Railroads 209 Railroads op the United States Projected. 209 Length and miles completed, with the Capital paid in and Funded Debt 209 Miles of Canals and Railroads for transporta- tion of Coal 220 Miles of Railroad in use for transportation of Cotton, with number Bales of Cotton 220 Railroads entering Chicago 221 Tonnage of the five great East and "West Transportation Lines 221 New York and Philadelphia Stages 222 City Railroads * 223 Number miles of Railroads in the world, with the cost per mile in each country 224 STEAM. History op the Steam Engine 221 First Steam Engines in America 221 Robert Fulton, Oliver Evans, Watt 228 Horse Power of Steam Engines 228 High and Low Pressure 229 First adoption of the Crank for the Steam Engine 229 English and American Steamers 232 Description of the Steam Engine 233 Steamboats 234 John Fitch 234 Steamboats on the Ohio River 239 Steamboats on the Lakes 239 The Propeller 240 The Adriatic 241 First use of Coal for Steamers 241 Explosion of the Boiler of Steamboat "Wash- ington 242 PAGB Tonnage of Steam Yessels of United States.. 243 Locomotives 243 First experiments 244 First Locomotive built in America 245 Export of Locomotives 246 Cost of Locomotives 247 Great speed of a Locomotive 249 Time saved in England by Railroad Travel- ling in comparison with Stages 250 Dummy Engines 250 Stationary Engine 252 Rotary Engine 253 Corliss Engine 254 Portable Engine 255 Steam Saw MiUs 256 Description of Steam 256 Brooklyn Water Works Engine 258 Steam Pumps 258 Fire Engines 259 Miscellaneous 263 Use of Steam in Farming 264 Steam in Manufacturing 266 Conclusion. • 268 Caloric Engines 210 Experiments of United States Government on the Expansion of Steam 212 COTTON MANUFACTURES. Origin — Hand- Work — Inventions 274 Hand Carding 215 The first Spinning Jenny \ . . 275 First Carding Machine 276 First Power Loom 276 First Calico Printing in England , 276 The American Invention of Mr. Perkins 277 Early Importations of Cotton into Great Bri- tain 217 Dates of Important Inventions in Cotton Ma- chinery 217 Manufacture in America 280 First Cotton Mills in Rhode Island ,. . . 280 The number of Cotton Mills in 1809 281 The first Mill in the world combining all . branches of Cotton Manufacture, establish- ed in Waltham, Mass 282 The beginning of Lowell 282 Statistical Table of Cotton MiUs in 1831 283 do do do 1850 285 Inventions, Mode of Manufacture, Printing, &C 286 The meaning of Staple as applied to Cotton.. 286 Description of Calico Printing 288 Statistics of Cotton Manufacture in the United States, from 1809 to 1860 290 CONTENTS. PAGK PAPER: ITS MANUFACTURE. Materials — Progress 291 First Paper Mill in Massachusetts 292 Importations of Rags into the United States from 1846 to 1857 292 Rags consumed in the United States, Great Britain and France 293 Mummy Wrappers used for Paper 293 Water Mark 294 Inventions — Manufacture 295 Fourdrinier Machine. , 295 Names and Dimensions of Paper 296 Description of Manufacture 296 Statistics of Manufacture 298 WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES. Carding — Weaving — Felting 300 Value of Manufactures from 1810 to 1850. . 300 Machines for making Cards 301 Manufacture of Worsted 301 Dyeing Cloths 304 Felting 305 Carpets 306 Quantity of Carpeting made in Massachusetts and New York in 1855 308 Clothing Trade 309 Statistics for 1850 309 Large Manufactories 310 Statistics of Woollen Manufactures in 1850 ..311 Manufactures of Massachusetts, New York and Maine 312 Imports of Cloths 312 Imports of Wool, total consumption 313 Shoddy, description of 313 LEATHER. Tanning— Boots and Shoes 316 Leather Manufacture in 1850. 316 Different kinds of Hides 317 Disposition of Hides brought into New York . 318 Description of Tanning 319 Time required for Tanning different Hides.. . 322 Number and value of Boots and Shoes man- ufactured in Massachusetts 324 Pegging Machines , , , 325 Statistics of Leather Trade of New York for 1855 326 FIRE-ARMS. Colt's Revolvers 328 The Match-lock and Flint-lock 328 Colt's Inventions. ; 331 I>AGB Colt's Fire- Arms at the World's Fair 331 Colt's Manufactory 332 Sharpe's Rifle and Pistol 332 Stafford and Whitney Arms 333 United States Armories 334 Dahlgren Gun 335 Comparative Strength of Iron and Bronze ... 335 Process of Casting 335 Method of Proving 336 Naval Warfare 337 Large Gun for Harbor Defence 337 The Floyd Gun 337 Powder used 338 CUTLERY. United States Industry — Axes 339 European System 339 Shears at Seven Cents per dozen 340 Table Cutlery manufactured in the United States by Machinery 340 Grinding and Polishing 340 Butcher and Shoe Knives, Forks 341 Axe Manufacture 341 Statistics of Cutlery and Edge Tools for 1850 . 342 FURS AND FUR TRADE. Trade with the Indians 343 Hudson's Bay Company 343 John Jacob Astor in Fur trade 344 Exports of Fur for 1850 345 List of Prices of various Furs 346 Prices of different kinds per set 347 Felting of Fur 347 HATS. Early History — Improvements 348 The London Hatters 343 Early Fashions 343 Hat Business in New York 349 Monopoly of Machinery 349 Silk Hats. 350 Finishing 350 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. Introductory Remarks 353 Buildings and Building Materials 353 Number and value of Dwellings in the United States in 1798 and 1850 354 Dwellings as per population 354 Supposed value of Buildings in 1870 355 Improvements, Fixtures 355 CONTENTS. Xlll PAGE Lumber Business 356 Machinery used in Building 351 Lumber Trade East, West and South 357 Brick Making 358 Lime 358 Stone 359 Ship Building 359 Statistics of House and Ship Building 360 Carriages and Coaches 360 New York Omnibus 360 Kinds of Timber used 361 Description of Messrs. Gr. & D. Cook & Co.'s Manufactory 361 Carriage and Car Manufactories in New York 362 Express Wagons 367 Statistics for 1850 368 Clocks and Watches 368 Alfred the Great uses Candles as Time-pieces 368 Connecticut Clocks 369 Terry, Thomas, Jerome, and others 369 Bamum in the Clock Business 370 Exportation of Clocks 370 Roxbury Watch Factory 370 Watches made by Machinery at Waltham.. . 371 Electro- Plating 372 Description of the Process 372 Fisheries 377 Venice founded by Fishermen 378 Holland and England, do 378 Yankee Fishermen 378 Fishing Bounties 378 Cod, Mackerel, Herring and Halibut Fishing 378 Oyster Trade 384 Whale Fishery. 386 Seal Fishery. 385 Statistics of Fishing Trade 386 Ice 386 Use of Ice by the Ancients 386 General uses of Ice 387 Massachusetts in the loe Trade 387 Exports of Ice 388 Gathering Ice in Houses 388 Use of Ice in the East Indies — ^Incident re- lated by Edward Everett 389 Pore 389 Pin Manufacture in State Prisons 390 Pin Machines 390 Manufactory at Waterbury 390 Refined Sugar 391 Consumption of Sugar per bead of popula- tion in United States, Great Britain, France, and Germany 39X Beet Sugar in France. 392 lafcroduction of Machinery. 392 PAGB Annual Value of Candies - ,.. r ......... . 392 Silk 393 Early Culture of Silk in America 393 Morus Mullicaulis Speculation 394 Imports of Raw Silk 395 Fire-Proof Safes and Safe Locks 395 First Imports of Safes 396 Spontaneous Combustion of a Safe 396 Wilder's, Marvin's, and other Safes.. ... 397 Bank Locks at the World's Fair 398 Glass Manufacture 398 Various uses of Glass 398 Glass of remote antiquity 399 Early manufacturing in England 399 First Glass Works in America 399 Materials for Glass 400 Description of Manufacture 401 American Inventions for Grinding Glass .... 403 Silvering Glass 404 Enamelled Glass 405 India-Rubber and its Manufacture 406 Countries producing it, gathering, &c 406 Goodyear's experiments 410 Belting and Hose Manufacture 411 Rubber Car Springs 411 Statistics of the Trade 412 Sewing Machines 413 Elias Howe, Jun., Lock-stitch 413 Three classes of Machines 414 Mr. Wilson's improvement 419 Description of Wheeler and Wilson's Machine 419 Singer & Co.'s Machines, description of tneir Manufactory 421 Grover & Baker Machines 424 Finkle & Lyon's Machines 425 Number Machines made under Howe's patent 426 Comparison between Hand and Machine Sew- ing 426 Various uses of Machines, Statistics, &c . 428 Comparative Statistics of Great Britain and the United States 430 Mills 431 Product of Flour and Grist Mills 431 Number of Flour Mills in 1840 and 1860 ... 432 Descriptions of Mills 432 Musical Instrumen-ts 434 HUMANITARIAN AND CORRECTIVE INSTI- TUTIONS. Prisons and Prison Discipline 435 Auburn Prisons 436 The Silent System 437 Great Britain and Germany, Prisons in . . . 438 LIST OF ILLUSTBATIONS. PAGE. 1, On the Mississippi, {Steel plate.) 2, Fancy Title, {Steel plate.) 3, Continental Bank Note, 2 4, The Aborigines, 17 5, The Beginning, 18 6, Life in New England 1770, 20 7, The Deer, 22 8, Golden Plover, 23 9, Partridges, 23 10, Wild Turkey, 23 1 1, Canvass Back Duck, 23 12, Farming Tools of 1790, 28 13, Farming Tools at the Present Time, 29 14, Threshing Machine, James Bray ley, Buf- falo, N. Y., 30 15, Threshing by Hand, 30 16, Excelsior Mower, 31 1 7, Wheeler's Patent Reaper, 34 1 8, Landing at Jamestown, (Sted plate,) 36 19, Milch Cow, 43 20, Short horn Bull, 43 21, Jennie, 44 22, Devon Bull, 45 23, Ayrshire Bull, 46 24, Petersham Morgan, 55 25, Trotting Childers, 56 26, Cotswold Sheep, 57 27, South Downs, 58 28, Southern Pine-woods Hog, 61 29, Western Beech-nut Hog, 61 30, Improved Suffolk, 61 31 , Improved Essex, 62 32, Berkshire Hog, 62 33, Slaughtering Hog, 64 34, " " 65 35, The Pasture, {Sted Plate,) 79 36, Making Ready for Cultivation, 81 37, Cultivation of Small Fruit, 81 38, Fruit Piece, ( Chromo,) 82 39, Gathering Hops, 88 40, Domestic Poultry, ( Chromo,) 90 41, Hauling Logs, 92 42, Sawing off Logs, 92 43, Floating Logs, 92 44, The Jam, 93 45, Loading the Ship, 93 46, Lumbermen Cabin, 93 47, Manufacture of Turpentine, No. 1, 94 48, " " No. 2, 94 49, " " No. 3, 94 50, " " No. 4, 95 51, « " No. 5, 95 52, " " No. 6, 95 53, Agriculture Department Building, Wash- ington, D. C, 98 54, Hauling Cotton to Market, 106 PAGE. 55, Cotton Press, Campbell, Whittier & Co., Boston, Mass., 107 56, Cleaning Cotton by hand, 112 57, Cotton Gin, 112 58, Gathering Statistics among the Cotton Plantations, {Steel plate,) 1 14 59, Plantation Preacher, 120 60, Picking Cotton, 125 61, Gathering the Cane, 126 62, Commerce, 131 63, Clipper Ship, 149 64, Emigrant Ship, 150 65, Wall Street, New York,. . . . {Steel Plate,) 159 67, The Bridle Path, 171 68, The Stage Coach, 171 69, The Canal, 171 70, The Railway, 171 71, Captain Bunker's Sloop, {Steel Plate,) 181 72, Flat Boat, 182 73, Western Steamboat, 182 74, First Locomotive on the Mohawk R.R.,. . 194 75, Modern Train, Pullman's Palace Cars, . . 1 94 76, Emigrants, 198 77, Emigrant Train, 199 78, Panama R. R., 224 79, Trestle opposite Auburn, 224 80, Truss Bridge, Clipper Ravine, 224 81, Bloomer Cut, 224 82, Long Ravine, 224 83, Trestle at Secrettown, 224 84, Trestle in Clipper Ravine, 224 85, Experimental Boat, 226 86, First Passenger Steamboat, 226 87, The First Propeller 235 88, Oliver Evans' Orukter Amphibolos, 235 89, Machinery of Fulton's first Boat,. 236 90, The North River of Clermont, 236 91, Steamer Adriatic, 237 92, Marine Engine, 240 93, Riveting the Boilers, 240 94, Bending and Cutting Engines, 241 95, Cutting Engine, 241 96, Casting Cylinder, 241 97, Amoskeag Locomotive Works, 247 98, " Fire Engine, 248 99, Stationaiy Engine, Woodruff & Beach Iron Works, Hartford, Conn., 252 100, Section No. 4 Iron Works, 252 101, " No. 5 " 252 102, " No. 6 " ., 252 103, " No. 2 " 253 104, " No. 3 " 253 105, Silsby's Fire Engine, 261 106, Caloric Engine, 262 107, Hand Loom, 278 108, Power Loom, 278 LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS. XV PAGE. 109, Spinning by hand 279 110, Mule Spinner, 279 111, 200 Spindle Spinning Jack, D. Taintor, Worcester, Mass., 282 112, Double Cylinder Twister — Fales, Jenks & Sons' Pawtucket, K. I., 283 113, Lyall's Postive Motion Loom, Lyall Loom Co., 35 Wooster St., N. Y., 289 114, Section 4, 289 115, " 3, 288 116, " 2, 289 1 1 7, Making Paper by hand, 295 118, Paper Engine, 295 119, Fourdrinier Paper Machine, 295 120, Hand Carding, 299 121, Iron Frame Finisher Carding Machine, D. Taintor, Worcester, Mass., 302 122, Crompton's Improved Fancy Loom, Geo. Crompton, Worcester, Mass., 303 123, Marble's Gig, Curtis & Marble, Worcester, Mass., 303 124, Cotton Shearing Machine, Curtis'& Mar- ble, Worcester, Mass., 304 125, Improved Perpetual Shearing Machine, Curtis & Marble, Worcester, Mass., . . 305 126, Double Acting Brusher, Curtis & Marble, Worcester, Mass., 305 127,' Over the Beam, 324 128, Hide Splitting Machine, 324 129, Unhairing the Hide, 324 130, Tan Yard, 324 131, Pegging Boots by hand, 325 132, Wax-end Sewing Machine, D.Whittemore, Boston, Mass., 325 133, Pegging Machine, D. Whittemore, Boston, Mass 325 134, Military Rifle, 329 135, Sporting Rifle, 329 136, New Model Pistol, 329 137, Revolving Pistol, 329 138, Holster Pistol, 329 139, Sporting Rifle, 331 140, Military Carbine, 331 141, Revolving Shot Gun, 331 142, Regulation Rifle 331 143, Iron-clads and Monitors, (Sted Plate,) 338 144, Buff"alo, 346 145, Polar Bear, 346 146, Black Bear, 346 147, Fox 346 148, Otter, 346 149, Beavers, 346 150, Muskquash, , 347 151, American Sable, 347 152, View Chickering & Son Piano-Forte Man- ufactory,.» 352 153, Getting out floor boards by hand, 357 154, Woodworth Plaining Machine, Ball & Co., Worcester, Mass., 357 155, Wagon of 1810, 362 156, Wagon of 1820, 362 1 '17, Thorough Brace, 362 158, First Elliptic Springs, 362 159, Jagger, 362 160, Gazelle, 362 161, Cricket, 362 162, French Dog Cart, 362 163, Doctor's Phaeton, 363 164, Full Top Cabriolet, 363 PAGE. 165, Champion, 363 166, American Sociable Rockaway, Lawrence, Bradley & Pardee, New Haven, Conn., 363 167, Sensible Buggie, do do ... . 364 168, Deep side box Buggie, do do . . . . 364 169, Victoria Phaeton, do do .... 364 170, York Wagon, do do 365 171, English Square Phaeton, do .... 365 172, C. Spring Victoria, do 365 173, View of Elgin Watch Factory, 370 174, The Train Room, 370 175, Elgin Machine Shop, 370 1 7.6, Setting up the Watches, 370 177, First Clocks used by Country people,. . . . 370 178, Hour Glass, 370 179, Sun-Dial, 370 180, Lever 30 hour 6 inch Clock, American Clock Co., 3 Courtland st. N, Y., 370 181, Lever, 30 hour 8 inch, do do ... . 370 182, 8 Day Cabinet, do do 370 183, Octagon, do do 370 184, Cottage, do do 370 185, 8 Day Office Calendar, do do 370 186, Mantel Clock, do do 371 187, « " do do .... 371 188, " " glass cover, do do .... 371 189, Tea Set, The Wilcox Silver Plate Co., West Meriden, Conn., 373 190, Tea Set, do do 373 191, " " do do 373 192, " "• do do .... 373 193, " " do do .... 373 194, " « do do 373 195, Toilet Stand, do do 374 196, Medalion Spoon holder, do do 374 197, Vegetable Dish, do do 374 198, Celery Stand, do do 374 199, Card Receiver, do do 374 200, Cup, do do .... 374 201, Grub Cup, do do 374 202, Glass lined Dessert Set, do do 374 203, Soup Tureen, do do .... 375 204, Pickle Caster, do do 375 205, Berry Dish, do do 375 206, Olive Jar, do do 375 207, Vase, do do 375 208, Cake Basket, do do 375 209, Spoon Holder, do do 375 210, Fruit Dish, do do .... 375 211, Chased Ice Pitcher, do do 376 212, Chased Urn, do do 376 213, Revolving Wine Stand, do do 376 214, Caster, do do 376 215, Goblet, do do 376 216, Butter Dish, » do do 376 217, Napkin Ring, do do 376 218, Whale Fishery, 379 219, Cod Fishery, 380 220, Trout Fishing, 385 221, Clearing Ice of Snow, 388 222, Marking and Cutting, 388 223, Sawing and bearing off, 388 224, Canaling to the Ice house, 389 225, The Elevator, 389 226, Packing away the Ice, 389 227, Fire-proof Safe, 396 228, " " 396 229^ Medal, 396 230, Buffet Side board Safe, 396 XVI LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE. 281, House Safe, Door open, 397 232, " " closed, 397 233, Champion Triple Bankers* Safe, 398 234, Fire-proof Safe with inside Bankers' chest, 398 235, Manufactory of Glass bottles, 404 236, Goblet Makers, 404 237, Press for Moulding Goblets, 404 238, Manufactory Window Glass, 404 239, The Great Calendar Machine, 407 240, Cutting Rubber, 407 241, Picus Elastica, 407 242, Machine for washing India Rubber, 408 243, India Rubber Grinding Mill, 408 244, Past, 413 245, Present, , 413 246, Wheeler & Wilson Sewing Machine, Fig. 1, 414 247, " " " " " 2, 414 248, « « " " " 3, 414 249, " " " " « 4, 415 250, " " « « " 5, 415 251, " " " " « 6, 415 252, " " " " " 7, 415 253, " " " " " 8, 415 354, " " " " " 9, 415 255, Singer Machines, plain, 416 256, " « Folding cover, 416 257, " " Extra finished, Folding cover, ,..,.,..,... 416 PACE. 258, Singer Machines, Folding cover, open for use,.. 416 259, Singer Machines, Cabinet Case, 416 260, " " " " open,.... 416 261, Sewing by hand, 417 262^ The Weed F. F. Machine, 417 263, Under view of F. F. Machine, 417 264, Machine with a corder attached, 417 265, F. F. Machine, full Cabinet case, 417 266, M. F. Machine, 417 267, Wilcox & Gibbs Machine without table,.. 526 268, No. 2 Machine, do " " . . 426 269, No. 4 Case " do " " . . 426 270, Half Case " do " " . . 426 271, Cabinet " opened, " " ..426 272, Section No. 2, 426 273, " No. 3, 426 274, " No. 4,.... 426 275, " No. 5 426 176, " Letter E,.... 426 177, " Needle bar and Needle, 426 278, View of Grover & Baker's Warehouse,.. 428 279, East River Bridge, N. Y.,. . . {Steel plate,) 280, Suspension Bridge, Cincinnati, Ohio, {Steel Plate,) 281, Map of the United States, 282, Map of North America, Note. — Some parties, from seeing engravings of machinery and manufactured articles, suppose this to be an advertising work. This is a mistake. These engravings are necessary in illustrating articles on these subjects. Not a word has been written with reference to advertising, or a penny received, directly or indirectly, for it. In some half dozen cases, parties who had such engravings as were required, have kindly offered the privilege of electrotyping from them. Publisher. AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. I SUPPOSE it will be conceded that agri- culture is the largest and most important in- terest of this country. It is my purpose to trace its progress from the time of the es- tablishment of the first settlements upon these shores, but more especially during the last hundred years. If I mistake not, a sketch of its history will be found to possess much that is interesting, useful, and in- structive. It is not necessary to dwell upon the con- dition of America at the time when it was first settled by Europeans. The charac- ter and the objects of the men who proposed to establish a home here, are already familiar to the mind of every intelligent person. They left countries which were considerably advanced in civilization, and better cultivated, probably, than any others, at that time, on the globe, with the exception, possibly, of the Chinese empire. They came to settle down in circumstances wholly new to them, with a climate and soil unlike any which they had known before. They were to begin life anew, as it were, where their previous ex- perience could afford them little or no aid, m a wilderness which was to be subdued by their own hands, in the midst of a thousand obstacles. With the exception of some extensive tracts of prairie, chiefly confined to the great west, then wholly unknown and inaccessible, there was no large extent of territory which was not covered with the primeval forest, though here and there a partially cultivated opening occurred, which was, or had been, occupied by the Indians. They were, there- fore, to start anew; to acquire, painfully 2 and laboriously, that practical knowledge of their new situation, for the details of which no previous training could have fitted them. When we consider the hardships they had to encounter, especially that portion of them who had to endure, year after year, the rigor of a northern winter, we cannot wonder that their progress in farming was slow. It is true, the different colonies, as they were originally established, had a somewhat different experience. The winters of Vir- ginia were less severe than those of New England. The settlers on the James river suffered less, probably, than those further north, but all had to undergo many priva- tions which are unknown to an old and im- proved country. All were surrounded by a howling wilderness, by savage men, by wild beasts ready to prey upon their live stock, or destroy their crops. In these re- spects the circumstances of the settlers in all parts of the country were nearly the same. Let us look, for a moment, at the condition of things in the Plymouth colony, and we can gather therefrom a pretty correct idea of that in the other settlements. For many months after the arrival of the pilgrims at Plymouth, they had no beasts of burden, and when at last a few cows were brought over, they were poorly fed on the coarse wild grasses, and they often died from ex- posure and want of proper food, or fell a prey to the wolves or the Indians. Owing to the difficulties and expense of importa- tion, the price was so high as to put them beyond the reach of many, even in moder- ate circumstances. In the colony of the Massachusetts Bay, a red calf soon came to 2U AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. be cheaper than a black one, on account of the greater liability to be mistaken for a deer and killed by the wolves. When cows were so high as to sell, in 1636, at from twenty-five to thirty pounds sterling, and oxen at forty pounds a pair, a quart of new milk could be bought for ar penny, and four eggs at the same price. . It is important to bear in mind that the cattle of that day, even in England, were not to be compared with the beautiful ani- mals now to be seen there. The ox of that day was small, ill-shaped, and in every way inferior to the ox of the present time. The sheep has, since then, been improved to an equal, or even greater extent, both in form and size, and in the fineness and value of its wool. The draught-horse, so service- able on the farm, long the pride of London, and now, to an almost equal extent, of most of our large cities, was not then known. It is difficult to appreciate fully the changes which the increased attention to agriculture has effected in our domestic animals, even within the last half century. But when we consider that no attention whatever was paid to the culture of the grasses ; that very few, if any, of the vegeta- bles, now extensively cultivated as food for stock, were then introduced there ; that the introduction of red clover into England did not take place till 1633 ; of sainfoin, not till 1651 ; of yellow clover, not till 1659 ; and of white, or Dutch clover, not till the year 1700; and that the form, size, and perfec- tion of animals depend largely upon a full supply of food and good care when young, we shall cease to wonder, when we are told by the highest authority, that during the early part of the last century the average gross weight of the neat cattle brought for sale to the Smithfield market was not over three hundred and seventy pounds, and that of sheep, twenty-eight pounds; while the average weight of the former is now over eight hundred pounds, and of the latter, over eighty pounds. It is a fact worthy of note in this con- nection, as it throws much light upon the early farming in this country, that the ex- tensive and practical cultivation of the nat- ural grasses originated here ; or, at least, was introduced here long before it was into England. The necessities of our rigorous climate, indeed, compelled attention to this branch of husbandry very soon after the set- ttlement, while the climate of England ad- mitted a greater degree of reliance on the wild luxuriance of nature. The cattle that first arrived, in 1624, were kept through the long winters on poor and miserable swale hay, or more frequently on the salt hay cut from the marshes, and death from starvation and exposure was no uncom- mon occurrence, the farmer sometimes los- ing his entire herd. The treatment of an- imals now as they were treated during the whole, or nearly the whole, of the first century of the colony, would subject the owner to prosecution for cruelty. This treatment was, in part, no doubt, owing to the poverty of the settlers, but more, proba- bly, to the ideas and practices in which they had been early trained in a diff'erent climate. Besides, on account of the high price of cattle at that period, and the risks to which they were exposed, it is not probable that the settlers selected the best specimens then to be found in England. There is no evi- dence that they were at all particular in this respect. Nor was the difficulty of procur- ing agricultural implements the least of the obstacles to the successful pursuit of farm- ing. A few, no doubt, were brought over, from time to time, from the mother coun- try, but all could not obtain them in this way ; while the only metal to be had was made of bog ore, very brittle, and liable ip break and put a stop to a day's work. Most were made of wood, and those imported were extremely rude in construction, being very heavy and unwieldy, and having compar- atively little fitness for the purpose for which they were designed. The process of casting steel was not discovered till the middle of the last century, and then it was kept & secret in Sheffield for some years. The number and variety of implements have been infinitely increased, as we shall see, even within the last half century, to meet the wants of a more advanced state of ag- riculture, to which, indeed, these mechanical improvements have, m their turn, largely contributed. Indian corn, pumpkins, squashes, potatoes, and tobacco, were plants which few of the early colonists had ever seen previous to their arrival here, but necessity taught them their j value, and they were not slow in adopting I the Indian methods of cultivating them. As the general cultivation among the colo- nies continued much the same for many years, with slight modifications, on the in- troduction of the European implements, it LIFE IN NEW ENGLAND, 1770. <5 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 21 may not be inappropriate to turn our atten- tion, for a moment, to the agriculture of the natives. Most of the hard work among the Indians, it is well known, fell to the lot of the women, with the assistance, sometimes, of the old men and little boys. Among their thankless tasks was that of farming, which they carried on to an extent quite re- markable, when we consider the rudeness of the implements with which they had to work, and the circumstances in which they were placed. They had no art of manufac- turing metal, and, of course, could have no suitable contrivances for tilling the ground. Their cultivation was not so rude, however, as one would naturally suppose. They made a kind of hoe by tying the shoulder-blade of a moose, bear, or deer, to a stick or pole, and managed to do much of the work with that. The land, when selected, was cleared by keeping up a fire around the foot of each tree till its bark was so burned that it would die. Then they planted their corn. When a tree fell, it was burned into pieces of such length that they could be rolled into a heap and burned to ashes. In this way, by degrees, a piece covered with wood was wholly cleared. An industrious woman could burn off as many dry, fallen logs in a day as a strong man could, at that time, cut with an axe in two or three. They used a stone axe, made much in the same manner as the hoe above described, to scrape the charred surface of the logs and hasten the burning. This mode of clearing was pretty common among the natives in different parts of the country. Sometimes the tree was first girdled with the axe and thus killed, allowed to become dry, and then burned by kindling a fire around it, as above described. Several of these stone axes, of different sizes, are now in my possession. The Indians taught the settlers to select the finest ears of corn for seed, to plant it at a proper time, to weed it, and to hill it. They were accustomed to dig small holes four feet apart, with a clumsy instrument resembling the one described, which was made, not unfrequently, of a large clam- shell. Those living in the vicinity of the sea-shore put into each hole a horse-shoe crab or two, or a fish, upon which they dropped four, and sometimes six kernels of com, and covered it with the implement with which they had dug the hole. The use of fish in the hill as a fertilizer was common, also, in the interior. Beans were planted with the corn after it had come up, and grew up supported by it. Great attention was paid to the protection of their crops from weeds, while the com was carefully guarded from destruction by insects and birds. To prevent loss by the latter, a small watch-house was erected in the midst of a field of corn, in which one of the family, often the eldest child, slept, and early in the morning rose to watch the birds. It was their universal custom to hill the corn, often from one to two feet high, for its sup- port, and spots are often seen at the present day which were evidently cultivated by them. The colonists very generally imitated this custom, and it has been continued down to our own times in many parts of the coun- try. The men planted and cured their tobac- co, which was, ordinarily, the only plant they worked upon, the women managing all the rest. This brief sketch of the farming of the Indians would not be complete without an allusion to their mode of storing grain for their winter supply. Large holes were dug in the earth, and the sides carefully lined with bark ; this was also the work of the women. The corn and the beans, after being dried in the sun, or on rocks or flakes over a fire, were thrown into these holes, and then they were covered up level with the surface of the ground. They were thus pre- served, if necessary, through the winter. These excavated barns were carefully con- cealed by the women from their lazy hus- bands and sons, lest they should discover and eat up their contents ; yet, with all the care they could take, the hogs of the colo- nists often unhinged their barn-doors, and helped themselves to the golden treasure. History says that one of these Indian barns was discovered by the pilgrims at Truro, at a time when their store of provisions was so reduced as to contain but five kernels of corn to each individual. They sometimes made additional provis- ion for winter by means of large boxes of wicker-work, or bags or sacks of hemp, which were filled and kept in the wigwam for the more immediate wants of the family. They had, of course, little or no occasion to cut grass, though it grew in abundance along the marshes and the rivers, and in places which had been cleared for cultivation. It was of a coarse quality, and served the colo- AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. nists a good turn till they resorted to tlie cultivation of better. We may imagine the surprise of the na- tives at the first sight of a plough. They could not understand so complicated a ma- chine. They wanted to see it work; and when it tore up more ground in a day than they, with their clam-shells, could scrape up in a month, and they saw the colter and the share to be of iron, they told the ploughman if he was not the devil himself, he was very much like him. The first sight of a ship, it is recorded, had excited their wonder even to a greater extent. To them it was a floating island ; its masts were nothing but trees; its sails were clouds; its discharge of guns was thunder and lightning ; but as soon as the thunder and lightning ceased, they pushed off their canoes to go and pick strawberries on the island ! This cursory glance at the early surround- ings of the settlers of the country, will en- able us the better to comprehend the difii- culties in the way of making rapid progress. When poor and miserable cattle, poor and miserable implements, poor and miserable ideas of farming were the best of every thing they had, we can well imagine that little was done which was not forced upon them by the pressure of necessity. Their wants were too many, and required too vigorous exer- tions to provide what was indispensable, to admit of their spending time to experiment or seek out new principles to be applied to practical farming. As long as new lands could be had almost for the asking, it was not to be expected that they would till them very thoroughly. The soil was rich in mould — the accumulation of ages — and did not require very careful cultivation to se- cure an abundant return. But years of con- stant cropping exhausted its productiveness, when other lands were taken to subject to the same process. The farmer raised wheat year after year on the same land, till the soil became too poor, and then he planted corn ; and when it would no longer grow corn, he sowed barley, or rye, and so on to beans. Agriculture, so far as any real improve- ment was concerned, was, therefore, natural- ly enough, in a state of extreme depression for more than a century and a half after the establishment of colonies in various parts of -the country. There were few intelligent cul- ■tivators previous to the Revolution, and there ^9& no spirit of inquiry to give a charm to farm labor. It was performed as an evil which must be endured from stern necessity. Hard work was the order of the day. The forests were to be cleared, the buildings for shelter erected, the stone walls to be laid, and little time or inclination was left for the " humanities" of life. The inhabitants of country towns, a hun- dred years ago, most of whom were, of course, engaged in tilling the soil, seldom visited even their neighboring towns, and many a farmer and farmer's son did not leave his own township from one year's end to an- other. The liberalizing influence of social intercourse was unknown and unappreciated, unless the village tavern and the frequent glass might be considered as forming an ex- ception, while it aff'orded an opportunity, of which most men availed themselves, of form^ ing new acquaintances and talking over the stale gossip of the neighborhood, or indulg- ing in the ribald jest. People for some miles around turned out to a "raising," as the erection of a frame building was termed, and a merry time it was, where the flip and the cider flowed like water. On a more limited scale, the " husk- ings" brought together, also, a pretty large neighborhood, when the same favorite drinks did much to enliven a long autumn evening, the whole being followed by a sumptuous re- past of pumpkin pies, etc., continued into the small hours of the night. Then the "spin- ning bees" aflbrded a time for talk, and song, and riddle. Election day often, however, brought the people from a greater distance. No butcher drove up to the farmer's door, with his ever fresh supply of meats, to give va- riety to the daily and homely fare ; no ba- ker, with his jingling bells, travelled his rounds on stated days to relieve the monot- ony of the housewife's toil. Salted meats were the almost universal food from autumn till spring, and often from spring till autumn, though now and then a sheep or a lamb fell a victim to the necessity for change. No cottons, no calicoes, no ging- hams, no linens, no flannels loaded the counters of the village store, to be had at a sixpence, or a ninepence, or a quarter a yard. The farmer, and the farmer's family, wore homespun, and the spinning-wheel and the huge timber loom were a part of nearly every household furniture, and their noise was rarely silenced. If linens were wanted, the flax was sown, and weeded, and pulled, and rotted, and broken, and swingled — for all GAME OF THE EAKLY SETTLERS AND FRONTIERSMEN. CANVAS-BACK DUCK. QUAIL. AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 23 of whieli processes nearly a year was re- quired before the fibre was ready for spin- ning, and bleaching on the grass, and making and wearing. If woollens, the sheep were sheared, and the wool dyed and got in read- iness, and months were often required before it could be got into shape for wearing. Courtships were, therefore, of longer dura- tion than many of them now-a-days, and two years was about as soon as the betrothed farmer's daughter could get ready to go to keeping house. Not unfrequently the flax had to be sown as the preliminary step, and to pass through all its forms of ^Mnsition in- to cloth and garments. With our present facilities for manufacturing by machinery every conceivable variety of fabric, and that, too, in the shortest space of time, it is impossible to appreciate fully the state of things among all classes of society a century ago. Even the old processes of curing and preparing flax, and the variety of fabrics made from it, have undergone an entire change. Processes which then required many months to complete, are now wholly avoided by the more perfect and economical ones at present known and in constant use. Owing to the imperfect provision for schools for the great body of the people, the boy was trained up to a narrow routine of labor, as his fathers had been for a century before. He often afi'ected to despise all in- telligent cultivation of the soil, and not only scrupulously followed the beaten track, but was intolerant of all innovation, simply be- cause it was innovation. Very few of the rural population of that day saw a newspa- per or a journal of any kind. There were not, probably, a dozen published in the whole country a century ago. There was not one in New England at the beginning of the last century, and but four in 1V50, and these had an extremely small circulation be- yond the limits of the metropolis. Obstinate adherence to prejudice of any kind is now generally regarded as a mark of ignorance or stupidity. A century ago, "the reverse was the case. In many a small country town a greater degree of intelli- gence— except on the part of the parson and the doctor — than was possessed by his neigh- bors, brought down upon the possessor the ridicule of the whole community. If he ventured to make experiments, to strike out new paths of practice and adopt new modes of culture; or if he did not plant just as xuany acres of corn as his fathers did, and that, too, in "the old of the moon;" if he did not sow just as much rye to the acre, use the same number of oxen to plough, and get in his crops on the same day ; or if he did not hoe as many times as his father and his grandfather did— if, in fine, he did not wear the same kind of homespun dress and adopt the same religious views and preju- dices, he was shunned in company by the old and young, and looked upon as a vision- ary. He knew nothing of a rotation of crops. The use and value of manures were little regarded. Even so late as within the memory of men still living, the barn was sometimes removed to get it out of the way of heaps of manure by which it was sur- rounded, because the owner would not go to the expense of removing these accumula- tions and put them upon his fields. The swine were generally allowed to run at large; the cattle were seldom or never housed at night during the summer and fall months ; the potato patch often came up to the very door, and the litter of the yard seldom left much to admire in the general appearance of things about the barn or the house. Farmers thought it necessary to let their cattle run at large very late in the fall, and to stand exposed to the severest colds of a win- ter's day, " to toughen." It was the com- mon opinion in the Virginia colony, that housing and milking cows in the winter would kill them. Orchards had been plant- ed in many parts of the country, but the fruit was, as a general thing, of an inferior quality, and used chiefly for the purpose of making cider. This is no picture drawn from the imagi- nation. It is strictly and literally true of the farming of the country as a whole, a century ago, though it should be remarked that a slightly modified state of things ex- isted in localities widely distant. But with some differences in detail, it will be found to be consonant with historical facts. It would be extremely interesting, were it in our power, to support, by accurate sta- tistics, this general view of the condition of farming during the last century, but, unfor- tunately, no reliable statistics were taken till the year 1790, and then, chiefly to ascertain the number of the population, with special reference to the distribution of the represen- tation, or the political power of the several states. We are, therefore, wholly destitute of statistical information of the products of farming industry during the last century; 24 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. / nor was it till the fourth decennial census, in 1820, that the population was divided ac- cording to industrial pursuits, so that we have no means of ascertaining even the number engaged in the occupation of farm- ing. We only tnow that the general esti- mate of the population at the time of the Revolution, which fixed it at three millions, was considerably too high. The occurrence of the Revolution, and the period immediately succeeding, very natu- rally brought men of all pursuits and from all parts of the country more frequently and closely together, and gave all classes, and farmers among the rest, a more general knowledge of what was passing in the world around them. Intercommunication became more easy and frequent, and had its influence upon the masses of the people. In the latter part of the last century many left the sea- board and removed to the interior to avoid the inconvenience arising from the difficul- ties between this and the mother country, and for other reasons ; more attention began to be paid to agriculture. Emigration from the east began to set toward the so-called inexhaustible west, which at that time meant central or western New York. Up to this point our survey of the con- dition of agriculture has necessarily been general. No one branch of farming had made any marked and perceptible progress. It has been said that a good strong man could have carried all the implements in use on the farm, except the cart and old clumsy harrow, upon his shoulders, fifty years ago, and we know that many a year occurred when grain, and even hay, had to be imported from England to keep the people and the cattle from starvation. Hereafter, it will be more convenient to trace the progress of the different branches of farm industry, and the means brought to bear in the development and improvement of agriculture, in a more distinct and separate manner, in order that we may get a clearer idea of the relative progress and influence of each. And first, of the origin and growth of ASSOCIATED AND LEGISLATIVE EFFORT. One of the characteristic features of the farming of the present day, is the extent to which associated effort is brought to bear upon all its details, by way of exhibitions, premiums, clubs for discussion, and the pub- lication of reports for wide and gratuitous distribution. This enormous power of mind upon mind, by means of association or social intercourse, is of comparatively recent ori- gin in this country. It can scarcely date back to the beginning of the present centu- ry, though the necessity of it had, even then, become impressed upon the minds of patriotic and public-spirited men. On the 20th of July, 1794, Washington, then president of the United States, ad- dressed a letter to Sir John Sinclair, in which he says : " It will be some time, I fear, before an agricultural society, with congressional aid, will be established in this country. We must walk, as other countries have, before we can run ; smaller societies must prepare the way for greater; but, with the lights before us, I hope we shall not be so slow in maturation as older nations have been. An attempt, as you will perceive by the enclosed outlines of a plan, is making to establish a state society in Pennsylvania for agricultural improvements. If it succeeds, it will be a step in the ladder ; at present, it is too much in embryo to decide upon the result." And again, in his annual address on the 7th De- cember, 1796, when he met for the last time the two houses of Congress, he said : " It will not be doubted that, with reference to either individual or national welfare, agricul- ture is of primary importance. In propor- tion as nations advance in population, and other circumstances of maturity, this truth becomes more apparent, and renders the cul- tivation of the soil more and more an object of public patronage. Institutions for pro- moting it grow up, supported by the public purse ; and to what object can it be dedica- ted with greater propriety? Among the means which have been employed to this end, none have been attended with greater success than the establishment of boards, composed of proper characters, charged with collecting and diflnsing information, and en- abled, by premiums and" small pecuniary aids, to encourage and assist a spirit of dis- covery and improvement. "This species of establishment contrib- utes doubly to the increase of improvement, by stimulating to enterprise and experiment, and by drawing to a common centre the re- sults, everywhere, of individual skill and ob- servation, and spreading them thence over the whole nation. Experience, accordingly, has shown that they are very cheap instru- ments of immense national benefit." Some few individuals, even before this date, had felt the necessity for some such ac- AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 25 tion as would lead to the development of the agricultural resources of the country, and as the result, the South Carolina Agri- cultural Society had been established in 1784, and still exists. The Philadelphia Society for the Improvement of Agriculture was formed in the same year, or the year after, followed by a similar association in New York in 1791, which was incorporated in 1793. The Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture was incorporated in 1792, and soon after commenced the publi- cation of a series of papers known as the Agricultural Repository^ which, for sound good sense and judicious suggestion, chal- lenges comparison with any similar series ever published. It should be stated, how- ever, that the prime movers in the formation of these societies were not men actually en- gaged in farming, though many of them were owners of fine estates. The mass of farmers were not, as yet, fully prepared for this pro- gressive effort, and all the agricultural teach- ings of educated and scientific men prove un- availing, unless the people themselves, the actual tillers of the soil, are prepared to re- ceive and profit by their teachings. Many years elapsed after these early efforts were made, before the habit of reading became sufficiently common among the masses of practical farmers to justify the expectation that any general benefit would arise from the annual publication of the transactions of these societies. There was little or no disposition in the community to examine the subject, and they failed to excite any spirit of emulation in the public mind. The improvements pro- posed fell almost dead upon the people, who rejected " book farming" as impertinent and useless, and knew as little of the chemistry of agriculture as of the problems of astron- omy. A quarter of a century, however, ef- fected some change, and in 1816 the Massa- chusetts society lield its first exhibition, at Brighton, at which a list of premiums was offered, and a ploughing match instituted, not so much with the object of improving the plough as to try the strength and docil- ity of the oxen. But the plough-maker hap- pened to be there, and to have his eyes open; and since that day, an amount of knowledge has been brought to bear upon this implement sufficient to bring it very near perfection. The first national society established with this specific object in view, is believed to have been the Columbian Agricultural So- ciety for the Promotion of lluraL and Do- mestic Economy, organized at a convention held in Georgetown, D. C, on the 28th No- vember, 1809 ; and the first agricultural ex- hibition in this country was, probably, one held by that society in Georgetown, on the 10th of May, 1810, when large premiums were offered for the encouragement of sheep raising, etc. In the October following, in the same year, Elkanah Watson exhibited three merino sheep under the great elm tree in Pittsfield, Mass., which was the germ of the Berkshire County Agricultural Society, whose regular exhibitions began the year following, and are believed to have been the first county exhibitions ever instituted in this country. To show the feeling with re- gard to what was, at that time, considered an innovation, in a strictly farming community, the projector of that society encountered the opposition and ridicule of all classes of so- ciety, from the moment the proposition was made. It was viewed by many with con- tempt. Gradually, however, the feelings of the people were enlisted in its favor, premi- ums were offered and a^varded, and a large concourse, from all parts of the county, in- creasing rapidly from year to year, showed clearly that something had reached the heart of the community. But though this was the first county exhi- bition, so far as I am informed, it was not the first county society that was formed. The Kennebec Agricultural Society was in- stituted at Augusta in 1800 and incorpora- ted in 1801, being the second society incor- porated within the limits of Massachusetts, to which Maine, at that time, belonged. A voluntary association of the Middlesex hus- bandmen had also been formed m 1794, and incorporated in 1803, under the name of the Western Society of Middlesex Husband- men. These were some of the early efforts in this direction, and though they, like other similar attempts, met with some opposition on the part of the very class they were intended to benefit, the increasing intelligence of the people very soon enabled them to live it down. Now we have more than a thousand similar associations, all striving, by the offer of premiums, and by bringing together the best products of the farm and the garden, to en- courage improvement and stimulate enter- prise. Almost every state in the Union has its state society, and almost every county, A&RICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. and, in some of the states, every county, has its county organization. And what is the result ? It is well known that by far the largest and most valuable part of our practical knowledge is that which is got in our intercourse with our fellow men, with those who are engaged in the same pursuits and have the same interests as ourselves. The farmer has, therefore, gained, and is gaining a vast amount of information, much of which he can apply to advantage on his farm. Emerging from his naturally iso- lated position, he has become a more social being. More frequent contact with others, by way of competition, has stimulated men- tal activity. Contrast him now with his father on the same farm half a century ago, and see if there is not some improvement that can be traced to the social influences of the agricultural clubs and societies. In addition to these societies, most, if not all of which are encouraged by the several states in a substantial manner, there exist, in some of the states, boards of agriculture, or- ganized as departments of the state govern- ment, and having a general supervision of the societies, receiving their official returns, and publishing an abstract of the most valu- able papers presented, for general distribu- tion. I do not think it is claiming too much for the agricultural societies throughout the country, to say that the general spirit of in- quiry in relation to farm improvements, and much of the enterprise manifested by farm- ers of the present day, is due to their efforts. The most impartial judgment would, in fact, go much further than this, and say that a large proportion of the actual improvement that has been made in farm stock, farm im- plements, and farm products, may be traced, directly or indirectly, to the influence of the agricultural associations of the country. To appreciate this influence it is only nec- essary to consider the immense facilities which a well-conducted exhibition gives, not only to the agricultural mechanic for mak- ing known the nature and value of his im- provements, but to the farmer for becoming acquainted with them. Many an invention would have slumbered in oblivion, or enjoy- ed only a limited and local fame, had it not been for the multitudes brought together at the state, county, and town fairs, which, it will thus be seen, furnish a most admirable medium of communication, both to the me- chanic and the farmer, making it for the in- terest of both to attend and avail themselves of the facilities offered them. Thus a great public interest is served, notwithstanding the individual mechanic or inventor may have his own interest chiefly at heart. And what is true with regard to agricul- tural implements, is true to nearly an equal extent of every thing else brought for exhibi- tion to the fairs of the societies. A farmer sees fruits that he knew nothing of, and could not obtain otherwise. He knows who presented them, secures the same for his own farm, and within five years can present as good samples himself. He sees animals brought to a degree of perfection of which he had never, perhaps, conceived. Thought is excited. He asks himself whether they are more profitable than his own ; procures them, perhaps, and thus an improved stock is disseminated over the country to take the place of that which is inferior, but which costs the individual nearly or quite as much to keep as that more valuable and profitable. I need not enlarge upon this point. Enough has been said, I think, to show that the modern system of associated effort is a most decided progressive movement ; but let us trace out more in detail some of its re- sults. And first, in the multiplication and improvement of FARM IMPLEMENTS. There is, perhaps, no branch of farm econ- omy in which the progress of improvement has been so apparent and unquestionable, as that made in the implements of agriculture during the last half century. It might al- most be said that progress in agriculture it- self may be measured by an increased de- mand for new and better implements, as the advance in civilization is shown by a greater demand for comforts and luxuries by the people. There was a time, as we have seen, in the history of American farming, when labor was cheap, when strong limbs and the power of endurance were the requisites chiefly sought for in the hired man, and when his labor was paid for as so much brute, physi- cal force. Intelligent labor, skill, and thought found higher rewards in other call- ings, and the practical farmer was thought to be sufficiently well informed if he was able to hold plough, to mow, to sow, and to reap. The labor — the physical force neces- sary to carry on the operations of the farm — could be obtained very easily in those days, AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 27 and it was natural that farmers should be satisfied with the limited variety of imple- ments then in use. The isolated position in which they were placed, their limited op- portunities for travel and observation, the difficulties, in fact, of getting about among people engaged in the same pursuits, all helped to strengthen prejudice and foster a repugnance to try new and unused imple- ments, or to strike out into new fields of ex- periments. Besides these obstacles in the way of improvement, the progress then made in the various branches of mechanics was extremely limited, and the adoption of new and improved implements must follow, of course, in the wake of mechanical invention. The few rude and imperfect implements in use at an early day were, for the most part, of home manufacture, or made by the neighboring blacksmith, who had a thousand other things to make at the same time. There was little idea of* a division of labor. Jack at all trades was good at none. As early as 1617, some ploughs were set to work in the Virginia plantation, but in that year the governor complained to the company that the colony "did suffer for want of skilful husbandmen, and means to set their ploughs on work ; having as good ground as any man can desire, and about forty bulls and oxen, but they wanted men to bring them to labor, and iron for the ploughs, and harness for the cattle. Some thirty or forty acres we had sown with one plough^ but it stood so long on the ground before it was reaped, it was most shaken, and the rest spoiled with the cattle and rats in the barn." This complaint had some effect, for, in 1648, a cotemporary resident says: ** We have now going near upon a hundred and fifty ploughs," and they were drawn by oxen. It is recorded that in 1637 there were but thirty-seven ploughs in the colony of Massa- chusetts Bay. Twelve years after the land- ing of the pilgrims, the farmers about Bos- ton had no ploughs, and were compelled to break up the bushes and prepare for cultiva- tion with their hands, and with rude and clumsy hoes or mattocks. It was the cus- tom, in that part of the country, even to a much later period, for any one owning a plough to go about and do the ploughing for the inhabitants over a considerable extent of territory. A town often paid a bounty to any one who would buy and keep a plough in repair for the purpose of going ; about to work in this way. The massive old wooden plough required a strong and well- fed team to move it through the soil, a heavy, muscular man to press it into the ground, another to hold, and another to drive. We may judge, therefore, of the economy of the work it performed. What was true of the early period of the settlement, was true, to nearly an equal extent, for a hundred and fifty years, so far as the implements and the processes of farming are concerned. All these last were traditional, handed down from sire to son, and adhered to in the strictest manner. The implements consisted almost wholly of the plough, the spade, a clumsy wooden fork, and now and then a harrow. I have in my possession two of these wooden forks, made, and in use, at least a hundred and fifty years ago, in the Massachusetts colony. They were regarded as curious for their antiquity in the youth of the grandfather of the donor, who died some years ago, upward of ninety years of age. That would date them back nearly two centuries, perhaps. At this time, the ploughs used among the French settlers in Illinois were made of wood, with a small point of iron tied up- on the wood with straps of raw-hide. The beams rested on an axle and small wooden wheels, the whole drawn by oxen yoked to the ploughs by the horns, by means of a straight yoke attached by raw leather straps, with a pole extended from the yoke back to the axle. The plough was very large and clumsy, and no small one was used by them to plough among the corn till after the war of 1812. The carts they used had not a particle of iron about them. During the last century, the old " Carey plough" was more extensively used in the Atlantic states than any other pattern, though the particular form of this instrument varied almost as much as the number of small man- ufacturers or blacksmiths who made it. The Carey plough had a clumsy wrought iron share, a land-side and standard made of wood, a wooden mould-board, often plated over, in a rough manner, with pieces of old saw-plates, tin, or sheet iron. The handles were upright, and were held by two pins ; a powerful man was required to hold it, and double the strength of team now com- monly used in doing the same kind of work. The "bar-side plough," or the "bull plough," was also used to some extent. A flat bar formed the land-side, and a big liHar r-.. i ' 80 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. clump of iron, shaped a little like the half of a lance head, served as a point, into the upper part of which a kind of colter was fastened. The mould-board was wooden, and fitted to the irons in the most bungling manner. The action might be illustrated by holding a sharp-pointed shovel back up, and thrusting it through the ground. In the southern states, the "shovel plough" was in general use down to a very recent date, and is, indeed, to some extent, at the present day. It was made of a rough- hewn stick for a beam, with another stick framed in, upon the end of which a piece of iron, shaped somewhat like a shovel, sharp- pointed, was fastened. The two rough han- dles were nailed or pinned on to the sides of the beam, having a wooden prop, with a draft iron, or a raw-hide loop, at the forward end of the beam Generally speaking, it might be said that the ploughs used in this country a century ago, were not very unlike those used by the old Romans before the Christian era, and by some of the people of southern Europe even at the present day. They were not unfre- quently nor inaptly termed the "hog plough," on account, probably, of their pro- pensity to root into and out of the ground. And in describing the plough, an adequate idea of all other kinds of farm implements — the variety, as we have seen, being extreme- ly small — is clearly enough conveyed. These old-fashioned wooden ploughs continued, with little or no improvement, till after the beginning of the present century. By far the greater part of the draught of the plough, or strength of team required, is due to friction in the soil. The cutting, raising, and turning over of the turf add compara- tively little to the draught, though, it is true, the friction itself is somewhat increased by the weight of the plough, and this w eight is, of course, increased by the weight of the furrow-slice as it is lifted from its bed. Hence, the draught of the plough is but slight- ly increased by an increase of speed, since the friction is not increased, but remains nearly the same on the bottom of the fur- row, on the land-side, and between the fur- row-slice and the mould-board, whether the motion be fast or slow. Modern improve- ments have aimed, therefore, to overcome the friction and resistance by an improv- ed construction of the mould-board and by the use 'of better materials, for it is now well established, by practical exper- iment, that the draught depends less on the weight of the plough itself, than on its con- struction. The draught does not increase in proportion to an increase of weight, and hence, though some still object to the mod- ern plough, as compared with the models in use fifty years ago, on account of their being heavier, yet it is a common remark that the draught is easier, and they require much less strength of team to do the same, or a far better work. The excessive friction of the old-fashioned bull plough was the great objection to it. It was constructed awkwardly enough, in the first place, but the form of the mould-board was especially defective, and this it was that required such great strength of team. It did pretty fair work, no doubt, on light and easy soils, but the share and the mould-board were so attached, as to make the wedge too blunt, which, of course, made the friction excessive. It broke and crumbled the fur- row-slice, in places, and was not calculated to turn a flat furrow. But the action of the old plough was not uniform, some furrows being set too much on the edge, while oth- ers were laid quite flat. It was not its weight so much as its form that needed im- provement. Its construction not being based on such principles as to make it of easy draught, it was more difiicult to hold, more easily thrown out of the ground, and required constant watchfulness on the part of the ploughman. It was diflBcult to culti- vate to any depth without the help of one or two men to ride on the beam to " hold down." The mould-board was frequently shod with iron, as we have seen, to diminish the friction and prevent wear ; but it was in strips, and uneven, and the desired effect was not always produced. It is not too much to say that the changes and modifications made in the mould-board within the last forty years, have eflfected such improvements as to enable the farmer to do a much greater amount of better work, with far less expenditure of strength, and to reap larger crops as the result, while the original cost of the implement is less than it former- ly was. The saving to the country from these improvements alone, within the last twenty-five years, has been estimated at no less than $10,000,000 a year in the work of teams, and $1,000,000 in the cost of ploughs, while the aggregate of the crops has been increased by many millions of bushels. These improvements in the form of the AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 81 mould-board will be understood, when we consider that one side of the furrow-slice, as soon as it is cut, begins to rise gradually, till, as the plough advances, it is turned en- tirely over. The mould-board should be so constructed as to offer the least possible re- sistance as it moves along, and to run as far as possible without clogging, to which the old plough was especially liable, the lines of its mould-board being concave, in- stead of convex or straight, according to the rules more recently laid down requiring the " board to be composed of straight lines in the direction of its length, with continually increasinor ano^les to the line of the furrow ; and these last lines are severally straight, convex, and concave." Ransome, after the most mature study of this implement, says : " Although no one form of mould-board will, or can be applicable to every variety of soil and circumstance, there is no description of soil for which a perfect mould-board may not be made by this rule in some of its mod- ifications." Such was the condition of things with re- gard to this, and most other farm imple- ments, at the close of the last and beginning of the present century, or till within the last forty or fifty years. The first patent for a cast iron plough in this country, is believed to have been that of Charles Newbold, of Burlington, N. J., in 1797. This patent combined the mould- board, share, and land-side, all cast together. It was so great and manifest an improvement on the old wooden plough, that Peacock, in his patent of 1807, paid the original inven- tor of the plough of 1797 the sum of $500 for the privilege of copying some parts of it. A cast iron mould-board had been invent- ed in Scotland, it is proper to remark, as early as 1740, by James Small, but he still continued to use the wrought iron share, cast iron not being used in its construction till 1785. Small established a plough man- ufactory in 1763, and becoming familiar with the manufacture of cast iron, not long after- ward, he conceived the idea of making pat- terns of the principal parts of the plough. But whether the American inventor had a knowledge of the existence of these ploughs is not known. Such was the extreme importance of this implement, as to command the attention of scientific men in studying to improve its form and construction, and, in 1798, Thomas Jefferson applied himself to the task, and wrote a treatise on the form of the mould- board,, discussing it on scientific principles, calculating mathematically its exact form and size, and especially its curvature, with a view to lessen its friction. I have seen his orig- inal manuscript of this essay, containing his drawings, etc., now in the possession of a gentleman of Boston. Since his time, such an amount of scientific and practical skill has been brought to bear upon this imple- ment, as to leave little to suggest. But it should be stated that the successive improve- ments were not readily adopted by the mass of farmers. Their introduction was far slower than that of an improved implement would be at the present time, though the prejudice against the use of new inventions has not yet wholly disappeared. Many a farmer, clinging to the old wooden plough, asserted that cast iron poisoned the ground, and spoilt the crops. Still, the modern styles gradually gained ground, as real im- provements always will. In one respect we have especially improved, and that is the adaptation of our ploughs to the different kinds of soil on which they are to be used. When attention was first directed to the im- provement of this implement during the lat- ter part of the last century, the principles of ploughing were not so well understood as at the present day. The work was neither so carefully done nor so critically examined, and, consequently, the want of different fonns of the plough adapted to the varieties of surface and of soil was not so much felt as now, when nearly every farmer sees that he cannot produce directly opposite eff"ects with the same implement. In another respect, also, custom has changed as much as the forms of the plough itself, for while a half century ago it was made by the blacksmith in nearly every small town in the country, it is now made in large establishments by those who devote themselves exclusively to the business, and these establishments have gradually diminished in number, while the aggregate number of ploughs has largely in- creased. In the single state of Massachu- setts, for example, there were, in 1845, no less than seventy-three plough manufacto- ries, making annually 61,334 ploughs and other agricultural implements, while in 1855 there were but twenty-two plough manufac- tories, making 152,686 ploughs, valued at $707,175.86. Up to the year 1855 there had been no less than three hundred and seventy-two patents issued from the Patent 32 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. Office at Washington, for changes and im- provements on this implement. I need not dwell upon the wonderful per- formances of the steam plough, the practical and successful operation of which is one of the proudest triumphs of modern agricul- tural mechanics and engineering. I need not dwell on the vastly increased facilities it will give for developing the resources of the west, through whose almost boundless prai- ries it will run unobstructed, like a thing of life. The harrow naturally follows the plough, and is equally indispensable. It has, prob- ably undergone fewer changes and modifica- tions, if we except those made within the last ten years, than any other of our farm implements, most of the forms of the modern haurow in use bearing a close resem- blance to those of the ancients, as illustrated on medals and sculptures. The old harrow, and that used by our fathers till within the memory of men still living, was made of wood, of simple bars and cross-bars furnish- ed with teeth. More recently the material used has been of iron, with teeth commonly pointed with steel, and this has partly obvi- ated the objections made to this implement on account of its great weight, which re- quired too slow a motion on the part of the team. A light, sharp-toothed harrow, moved quickly over the ground, accomplishes far the best work in preparing the soil for the reception of seed. So important is it thaijt this implement should be rapidly moved, that the work of the same implement, drawn sluggishly over the ground, or moved more rapidly, differs very widely in its results. A certain amount of weight is very important, it is true, and this weight differs according to circumstances ; but it is desirable to have it in the most compact form. The recent improvements, by which a complete rotatory motion is secured, together with a certain degree of flexibility gained by pieces of framework hinged together so that any part of the implement can be lifted or moved without disturbing the operation of the rest, seem to leave little to desire in respect to this important farm implement. This is a case, as well as that of the plough, of most decided improvement in an implement of very ancient date, handed down to us, in fact, from remote antiquity. As specimens of important labor-saving implements of modern invention and con- struction, we may mention a large class known as horse-hoes, grubbers, cultivators, drills, seed-sowers, and others of like char- acter. The seed-sowers and drills scatter the seed more uniformly than it could pos- sibly be done by hand ; dropping also, when it is desired, any concentrated or pulverized manure, and covering the roAvs. All the implements named, of which there is an infinite variety of forms, are most marked and decided improvements on manual labor, which was required by our forefathers for the same processes. Another large class of implements, among the most important of modern inventions, are the various kinds of harvesters, particu- larly the reapers and the mowers. Many of our grain crops, like wheat, bar- ley, and oats, come to maturity at nearly the same time. Wheat is liable to sprout in moist weather, and barley to become dis- colored if allowed to stand too long. The work of harvesting by the old method was necessarily slow and protracted. Previous to the introduction of the reaper, very large quantities of our most valuable grain were annually lost, owing to the impossibility of harvesting it properly and at the proper time. It is not, therefore, too much to say, that the successful introduction of the reaper into our grain fields has added many millions of dollars to the value of our an- nual harvest, not only by enabling us to se- cure the whole product, but also by making it possible for the farmer to increase the area of his cultivated fields, Avith a certainty of being able to gather in his whole crop. The sickle, which was in common use for harvesting the grain crop till the introduc- tion of the cradle, and, in fact, till a very recent date, was undoubtedly as old as Tubal Cain. No one who has had a practical ex- perience of its use, bending over in the most painful position from " early morn till dewy eve," can fail to appreciate the immense sav- ing of human muscle, and of slow and wearisome hand labor, by the introduction and use of the reaper. It would have been an astonishing evidence of stupidity on the part of the ancients, who relied mainly on wheat and the other smaller grains, had they not tried, at least, to replace the sickle by something better. This they did, for it is recorded that the farmers of Gaul used a simple reaper, not long after the time of Christ. Pliny asserts that the in- habitants of that country fixed a series of AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 35 knives into the tail-end of a cart, and this being propelled through the grain, clipped off the ears or heads, and thus it was har- vested. Many efforts were made in England and Scotland, at the beginning of the present century, to accomplish the same result, but with no great success. In the year 1833, Schnebley, of Maryland, obtained a patent on a machine for reaping grain; but that of Obed Hussey, of Baltimore, patented in the same year, has not only been successfully and somewhat extensively used from that time to this, in the western states, but has furnished the basis for the most successful models in this country, among the most noted of which are those of McCormick, of Virginia, and Manny & Atkins, of Illinois. The American reaping machines have been brought to a high state of perfection within the last ten years. They have already a world-wide reputation. Their superiority is generally acknowledged, and the credit of having for the first time made the prin- ciples applicable to such machinery prac- tically useful, undoubtedly belongs to our own ingenious mechanics. In the summer of 1855, the American machines were brought to trial at the exhibition at Paris, in competition with the world. This trial took place in a field of oats about forty miles from the city, each ma- chine having about one acre to cut. Three machines were entered for the first trial, one American, one English, and a third from Algiers, all at the same time raking as well as cutting. The American machine did its work in twenty-two minutes, the English in sixty-six, and the Algerian in seventy-two. At a subsequent trial on the same piece, when three other machines were entered, of American, English, and French manufacture, respectively, the American machine cut its acre in twenty-two minutes, while the two others failed. The successful competitor on this occasion, " did its work in the most ex- quisite manner," says a French journal, ** not leaving a single stalk ungathered, and it discharged the grain in the most perfect shape, as if placed by hand, for the binders. It finished its piece most gloriously." The contest was finally narrowed down to three machines, all American. Two ma- chines were afterward converted from reap- ers into mowers, one making the change in one minute, the other in twenty. Both performed their task to the astonishment 3 and satisfaction of a large concourse of spec- tators, and the judges themselves could not restrain their enthusiasm, but cried out " Good, good, well done," while the people hurrahed for the American reaper, crying out, " That's the machine, that's the ma- chine !" " All the laurels," says the report of a French agricultural journal, "we are free to confess, have been gloriously won by Americans, and this achievement cannot bo looked upon with indifference, as it plainly foreshadows the ultimate destiny of the new world !" And so with the mowing machines. The hay crop of the country is estimated at three hundred and fifty millions of dollars a year. It must be gathered at a season when labor is to be obtained with difficulty, and at even higher than the usual price of wages, and when the weather is often fickle and precarious, generally oppressively hot, making the task doubly irksome and un- healthy. But besides this, many acres of grass on our ordinary farms ripen at about the same time, which, if allowed to stand too long, will decrease in quantity and value of hay which might otherwise have been made from it. By the use of the mowing machine it can be secured and saved most quickly,, easily, and cheaply. Mowing is, at best, one of the severest of the labors of the farm, notwithstanding the efforts of poets and other writers to make us- believe it is all fun. It calls into play nearly every voluntary muscle in the body,, requiring not only the more frequent and regular movements of these muscles, but, on. account of the twisting motion of the body,, an unusually great exertion of muscular power. Nor does it require any small amount of skill to become a good mower,, since it is proverbial that, unless the boy becomes accustomed to the scythe, and learns while young, he can never become a. skilful mower. It is not at all surprising, therefore, that mechanical ingenuity should have been directed to shorten and lighten this severe operation. Tlie first mowing machine which met with any success in this country, is believed, to have been that of William Manning, of New Jersey, patented in 1831, and which met with a limited success more than twenty years ago. In 1834 appeared the Ambler patent, simple in its construction, with a cutter bar of wrought iron, and a single smooth-edged knife, oi^erated by means of a. 36 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. crank whicli gave it a vibratory motion. It was used in 1835 and 1836. A few other '^orts were made about that time, and met with some slight success, but it was not till a recent date that the machine was con- structed in a manner to give a confident hope of its ultimate and complete success. That hope has been fully realized, and the mower is one of the grandest agricultural inventions of modern times. Like all other inventions, it was adopted by the farmer with his usual caution, but its triumph has been so complete, that its utility and its economy are almost universaily admitted, and the number manufactured, and the sales to farmers, have been immense, and are even now rapidly increasing every year. As an evidence of this, McCormick is reported to have sold no less than four thousand of his reapers to the farmers around Chicago, for the single harvest of 1860, and other manu- facturers have no doubt met with similar encouragement. Contrast also the slow process of raking hay by the common hand rake, with the rapid and easy method of gathering it with the horse rake, accomplishing with great ease to a single man who drives, the labor of at least ten men with the old hand rake. With a common revolving rake, from twenty to twenty-five acres a day may be gathered up, and sixteen acres a day have been raked with the simplest form. What a security on the approach of a storm, when the farmer would be comparatively helpless with nothing but the common rake to rely on ! But what shall we say of the modern threshing machine as compared with the flail? Who does not well remember its familiar sound, and that beautiful description of Cowper — " Thump after thump resounds the constant flail, That seems to swing uncertain, and yet falls Full on the destined ear " ? Only think of the difference in the results. At the trial of threshing-machines at the Paris exhibition, the victory was won by an American machine, and during the opera- tion, to ascertain the comparative rapidity of threshing, six men were engaged in threshing with flails, who in one hour threshed sixty litres of wheat. In the same time Pitt's American machine threshed '740 litres, Clayton^s English " " 410 " Duvoir's French " " 250 " "iPiuet's " " " 150 " and a French journal, in speaking of the trial, said : *' This American machine liter- ally devoured the sheaves of wheat. The eye cannot follow the work which is eff'ect- ed between the entrance of the sheaves and the end of the operation. It is one of the greatest results which it is possible to at- tain. The impression which this spectacle produced on the Arab chiefs Avas profound." At the great fair in New York, in 1853, a machine was exhibited which not only threshed and winnowed the wheat, but meas- ured it, placed it in bags ready for the market, and recorded accurately the number of bush- els, and all by one continuous operation. These vast and acknowledged improve- ments in harvesting and threshing grain will be seen to be of the utmost importance, when it is considered that we annually raise about tAvo hundred millions of bushels of wheat, and of rye, barley, and oats over one hundred millions, and that the resources of the country may be developed, by the use of machinery, to an extent far beyond the reach of present calculation. The reaper, the thresher, and the mower are types of the ever restless and progress- ive spirit of the age. They point out to us a glorious future, in which they will accom- plish for us and for our country triumphs grander than the triumphs of arms, for they will develop the means of supporting the millions of human beings which the imple- ments of war can only destroy. Could the learned Malthus — who proclaim- ed the gloomy theory that war, famine, and pestilence were checks, designed by an all- wise Being to keep down the increase of population to a level with the means of sus- tenance— now rise up from his sleep of death and see the population of England more than doubled since his day, and that of this country multiplied many times, while the people are better fed, and better clothed, with less labor and less suff"ering, with the possibility of a famine wholly and forever removed, he might change his shameful doctrine, and adopt a more cheerful and hopeful view of the providence of God. With an immense multiplication of the hu- man species in all civilized countries which have been devoted to the arts of peace and the development of their material resources, a bountiful Father has sent us a superabun- dance of food, instead of famine, and has taught us to rely on the exhaustless bounty of the fruitful earth, and upon his beneficent AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 37 promise that seed time and harvest shall never fail to supply the daily wants of his children. But with all the progress which we have made in improving the implements of the farm, we have not reached perfection. No bound is set to human ingenuity, and further means may yet be devised to shorten labor and increase the products of the soil. We cannot hope, nor is it desirable, to avoid labor. This is not the object of im- proved machinery ; but to make labor more attractive, agreeable, and productive; to bring into subjection the rude forces of nature, and make them do our bidding and increase our stores ; to redeem thousands of acres now lying waste from wildness and des- olation, and to make our country the gran- ary of the world — these are triumphs we may hope to gain from the introduction and use of improved machinery, and in this view the subject commends itself to the attention of the highest intellect, and opens a field for the labors of the noblest philanthropy. PROGRESS IN THE RAISING OF STOCK. Allusion has already been made, incident- ally, to the character of the cattle from which the early importations into this country must, for the most part, have been drawn. The first animals that arrived in any part of the present territory of the United States were probably those taken to the colony on the James river, in Virginia, previous to the year 1609, the exact date of their arrival not being known. Several cows are known to have been carried there in 1610, and dur- ing the following year, 1611, no less than one hundred head arrived there from abroad. It is probable that those first introduced there were brought over by the earliest ad- venturers, and others came from the West Indies. It is well known that some of their cattle came from Ireland. Those from the West Indies were the descendants of cattle brought to America by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. I have seen it as- serted that so important was it considered that the cattle introduced into the infant colony should be preserved and allowed to increase, that an order was issued forbidding the killing of domestic animals of any kind, on pain of death to the principal, burning of the hand and cropping the ears of the accessory, and a sound whipping of twenty- four hours for the concealer of a knowledge of the facts. Such encouragement being given to the raising of stock, it is not sur- prising to find the number of cattle in Vir- ginia in 1620 amounting to about five hun- dred head ; and in 1639, to thirty thousand ; while from the fact that in 1648 the number had been reduced to twenty thousand, we may infer that the restrictions on killing them had been removed. Many also had been sent to New England. The first cattle that were introduced into the Plymouth colony, and undoubtedly the earliest brought into New England, arrived at Plymouth, in the ship Charity, in 1624. They were imported by Governor Winslow for the colony, and consisted of three heifers and a bull. A division of the stock, which appears to have been held in common, was made in 1627, when one or two are described as black, black and white, others brindle ; an evidence that there was no uniformity of color. These animals were to remain in the hands of individuals receiving them for ten years, they to have the produce, while the old stock was still to be owned by the col- ony in common. Twelve cows were sent to Cape Ann in 1626, and in 1629 thirty more, while in 1630 a^out a hundred animals were imported for the "governor and company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England." These cattle were kept at Salem. In the meantime, the first importation was made into New York from Holland by the Dutch West India Company, and the foundation laid for a valuable race of ani- mals. The number in all introduced was one hundred and three, consisting of horses and cattle for breeding. The company fui^ nished each tenant with four cows, four horses, some sheep and pigs, for the term of six years, when the number of animals re- ceived was to be returned, their increase being left in the hands of each farmer. Then the cattle belonging to the company were distributed among those who were un- able to buy stock. And so, for the settlements along the Delaware, cattle were introduced by the Swedish West India Company in 1627. It will be seen, therefore, that before the close of the year 1630, the number of horned cattle in all the colonies must have risen, by natural increase and by the importations above named, to several thousands. And then, in 1631, 1632, and 1633, sev- eral importations were made into what H now New Hampshire, by Captain John Mason, who, with Gorges, procured the 88 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. patent of large tracts of land in the vicinity of Piscataqua river, and immediately formed settlements there. The prime object of Mason was to carry on the manufacture of potash, and for this purpose he employed the Danes ; and it was in his voyages to and from Denmark that he procured many Dan- ish cattle, chiefly for the purposes of draught. They were, undoubtedly, considerably larger than the average of the cattle of England at that day, of a uniformly light yellow color, and made very fine oxen for labor. They soon became widely diffused over the whole region, and are said to have remained, with a great degree of purity of blood, or little intermixture, down to the year 1 820. Traces of them can be found even at the present day. They were, no doubt, large and coarse animals, and well adapted to endure the severity of the climate and the hardships to which they were subjected in the lumbering operations of that new colony. They, un- questionably, did much to lay the foundation of the " native" stock of New England, over which they spread in the course of a very few years, and became mixed with the cattle imported into Salem and Plymouth, and probably, to some extent, with the Dutch cattle already alluded to ; perhaps, also, with the black cattle of Spain and Wales, and subsequently with the long-horns and the short-horns, most or all of which crosses were accidental, or the result of individual convenience or other local circumstances. From them the working oxen of New Eng- land derive much of their character and reputation for strength, hardihood, quick- ness, and docility. Now we find the sources from which the native cattle of this country sprang. The early importations into Virginia were origi- nally derived, mainly, probably, from Eng- land ; some were from the black cattle of Spain, though the importation of 1611 probably came from England ; the cattle of the Plymouth colony came from the coast of Devonshire; those brought into New York from the island of Texel, on the coast of Holland, and were mostly, without doubt, the black and white Dutch cattle ; those on the Delaware were brought from Sweden ; those in New Hampshire were the large, yellow Danish cattle ; and as the earlier im- portations were the most extensive that were made for many years, these various stocks were crossed, and thus formed the original stock of the country. There is sufiicient evidence to show that they were interchanged between the colo- nies to some extent, at an early day. Some of the Virginia cattle were early sent to New England, while others found their way to Virginia through Pennsylvania, so that the mixture was great and inevitable. Of the mode of keeping cattle in the Virginia colony. Glover, a cotemporary, in the His- torical Register^ says : " All the inhabitants give their cattle in winter is only the husks of their Indian corn, unless it be some of them that have a little wheat straw, neither do they give them any more of these than will serve to keep them alive; by reason whereof they venture into the marshy grounds and swamps for food, where very many are lost." And Clayton, another equally high authority, says, "that they neither housed nor milked their cows in winter, having a notion that it would kill themy And still another, a Swedish traveller, Kalm, more recently, 1749, in speaking of the James river colony, says: "They make scarce any manure for their corn fields, but when one piece of ground has been exhausted by continual cropping, they clear and cultivate another piece of fresh land, and when that is exhausted proceed to a third. Their cat- tle are allowed to wander through the woods and uncultivated grounds, where they are half starved, having long ago extirpated almost all the annual grasses by cropping them too early in the spring, before they had time to form their flowers or to shed their seeds." The poorness of pasturage and want of food had caused the cattle to diminish in size from one generation to another, till they had become stunted and small, and were not improperly termed " lit- tle runts," or "natives." In color, the natives, as already indicated, are exceedingly various. Crosses of the Den- marks with the Spanish and Welsh would naturally have made a dark brindle ; crosses of the Denmarks and the Devons often made a lighter or yellowish brindle ; while the more recent importations of Jerseys and short-horns have generally produced a beau- tifully spotted progeny. The prejudice in favor of deep red, which was long the fa- vorite color of New England, is fast giving way to more variegated colors. In the year 1553, some Portuguese had taken cattle to Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, while in 1604, a Frenchman had in- troduced the small French cattle into Acadia, AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. from whence, in 1608, they were carried to Canada, and from there several animals were taken into what is now known as the "American Bottom," in Illinois, in 1682, where they increased rapidly. The first cattle imported into Carolina were obtained in England in 1670, and we find that the Indians on the Red River in Louisiana had cattle as early as 1690. The first importa- tion into Georgia was made, so far as we are informed, in 1732, followed by others in 1735. In 1750 the keeping of stock had assumed some importance in certain localities, par- ticularly in the older eastern settlements, where it had become comparatively safe from molestation, for it is known that some large farmers in Rhode Island kept as many as one hundred cows and upward, and the sale of thirteen thousand pounds of cheese from one farm is recorded, and in one case seventy-three cows produced ten thousand pounds of butter in five months, or an aver- age of very nearly a pound a day to a cow, which, for that length of time, must be re- garded as a good yield. It will be borne in mind that up to this time, and in fact for nearly half a century later, no well-directed efi'orts at improve- ment had been made even in England ; but at that time some localities there possessed classes or races of animals peculiar to them- selves, whose merits had begun to attract attention, though there was no general in- terest in the subject before the days of Bakewell, who "sat in the huge chimney corner of a log kitchen, hung round with the finest joints of his dried oxen, preserved as specimens of proportions ; a tall, stout, broad-shouldered man, of brown, red com- plexion, clad in a brown, loose coat and scarlet waistcoat, leather breeches, and top boots," and demonstrated what could be done by attention to true physiological laws in the breeding of cattle. The choice of breeds and obtaining good crosses were nowhere thought of previous to his time. In fact, before the cultivation of the natural and artificial grasses and the introduction of the turnip and other root crops, the farmer had comparatively little control over the frames of his cattle. He was obliged to give them such food as he had, or rather they were obliged to take such as they could get, which, on a vast majority of the farms, both of England and the American provinces, at that time, was what would now be considered pretty hard fare. Hard seasons and the want of winter feeding and shelter were obstacles vastly more difficult to overcome then than now. Those who should, " during the space of one year, keep the greatest weight of homed cattle," got the premiums off"ered by the London Society of Arts, rather than those who should exhibit the greatest degree of improvement in their animals. But with the increase and abundance of good food, the tide of improvement set in, and size began to be the grand aim of the earlier graziers, and the production of enormous monstrosities was the result. Now Bake- well, a man of remarkable sagacity and close observation, steps in and establishes a new system of animal development. With him mere size was no object. He wanted to build up a breed which should give the greatest amount of saleable beef for the amount of food consumed, having the best parts bearing a larger proportion to the offal than what was usually found. Small- ness of bone, and tendency to fatten and mature early, he thought indispensable in cattle bred for the shambles. Up to his day, both in England and America, it had been customary to keep oxen till they were seven or eight years old, before they were fatted for the butcher. He travelled over England, Ireland, and Holland to find ani- mals adapted to his purposes. " The old notion was," says Arthur Young, "that where you had large bones there was plenty of room to lay the flesh on. This, Mr. Bake- well has proved to be a mistake. He asserts the smaller the bones, the truer will be the make of the beast, the quicker she will fatten, and her weight will have a larger proportion of valuable meat." The greatest physiologists have shown, upon the highest scientific principles, that the formation of a large bony system is the result of defective nutrition. Other breeders, stimulated in part by Bakewell's efforts, and the wide and honora- ble reputation he achieved, immediately en- tered the field of competition, and Chaplin became the champion of the Lincolnshire sheep, as Bakewell of the Leicesters ; and the brothers Charles and Robert Colling direct- ed their efforts to improving the short-horns, as Bakewell the long-horns ; while the Duke of Bedford, Quartly, and others, not to be outdone, espoused the claims of the Devons, and Benjamin Tomkins those of the Here* 40 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. fords. So successful were these enterprising breeders, both in preserving purity of blood in their stock, and in extending the reputa- tion of their several herds, that at Charles Colling's sale on the 11th of October, 1810, Comet was bid off at 1,000 guineas, or $5,000, and many other animals about as high in proportion ; the forty-eight head sold, including considerable young stock, bringing no less than $35,5*79. The cow Lily, sired by Comet, brought 410 guineas, or $2,050; the bull Petrarch, also by Comet, sold for 365 guineas, or $1,825, and the calf Cecil for 130 guineas, or $650. There were seventeen cows, eleven bulls, seven bull calves, seven heifers, and five heifer calves, for which this successful breeder received an average of $741 a head. That sale, and that of Robert Colling in 1818, that of Lord Spencer in 1846, that of the Bates, or Kirkleavington herd in 1850, that of Lord Ducie two years later, and some still more recent and extensive sales, are the marked eras in the history of the short-horns in England, and it was through these sales, and the universal enthusiasm awakened by them, that the short-horns have become more widely spread over Great Britain, and more generally fashionable than any other breed. Tomkins began with the Herefords in a small way about the year 1766, and at his decease in 1819, his whole herd, consisting of fifty-two animals, including twenty-two steers, and varying in age from calves to two-year-olds and upward, was sold at auc- tion, and brought an aggregate of $23,368, or over $445 a head ; one bull sold to Lord Talbot for $2,943, while several cows brought from $1,000 to $1,200 a head. Both these breeds are celebrated for early maturity. Either of them may be prepared for market at two or three years of age, far better than the old style of cattle could be at five, six, and seven years, and be of nearly equal weights. I have mentioned these facts to show how it was that the average weight o^ cattle sold in the Smithfield market in- creased from 370 pounds in I7l0, to over 800 pounds at the present time. A select committee of the House of Commons, in a report printed in 1795, after a full investiga- tion, stated that since the year 1732, their neat cattle had, on an average, increased in weight and size at least one-fourth, or twenty-five per cent., which would fix the average weight in 1795 at about 462 pounds. The average age had formerly been over five years. In 1830, owing, in a large measure, to the enthusiasm which had been created, commencing first by the efforts of indi^ viduals, and radiating out through the com- munity in every direction, the average weight had increased to 656 pounds, an in- crease, in twenty-five years, of more than forty per cent, in weight, while the average age had been reduced to four years instead of five. What a contrast ! A saving of one whole year s consumption of forage, and an increase of forty per cent, in the profitable results, in the course of a quarter of a cen- tury ! But since then the average age has been still further reduced, and the average weight a good deal increased. Such being the striking results in England, it is not surprising that when an interest was awakened in the improvement of our agriculture, a desire was felt by intelligent breeders to avail themselves of the advan- tages which had already been gained abroad. Importations began, and a more systematic course of breeding was adopted ; at first, by a very limited number of enterprising far- mers, till, within the last twenty years, that number has rapidly increased, and the re- sults have become more marked and percep- tible. It may be remarked in passing, that two modes of improvement were open to the farmer and breeder, either of which, appar- ently, promised good results. The first was to select from among our native cattle the most perfect animals not known or sus- pected to belong or to be related to any of the well-established breeds, and to use them as breeders. This mode of improvement is simple enough if adopted and carried on with animals of any known race or breed, and, indeed, it is the only course of improve- ment which preserves the purity of blood. This was chiefly the course adopted in Eng- land by Bakewell with the long-horns, by the Collings and others with the short-horns, by Tomkins, Price, and others, with the Herefords, and by the Duke of Bedford and others with the Devons. Had they resorted to any other, they would have run the risk of a total failure and ruin of those valuable races. Their object was not to build up a new breed by crossing, so much as to im- prove and perfect the races, already valuable, which were to be found in particular localities or counties, which gave them their name. ' But our circumstances were entirely dif- ferent. We had no race and no breed of AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 41 cattle among us. The term race^ properly understood, applies only to animals of the same species, possessing, besides the general characteristics of that species, other charac- teristics, which they owe to the influence of soil, climate, nourishment, and habits of life to which they have long been subjected by man, and which they transmit with certainty to their progeny, and it is essential that they should have possessed these characteristics from a time to which " the memory of man runneth not to the contrary." The term breed, on the other hand, applies to a family of animals built up by a long series of care- ful breeding, till certain desired character- istics become fixed, capable, and sure of being transmitted. As might be supposed, the characteristics and peculiarities of races are more inherent, more fixed and strongly marked than those of families, or breeds built up artificially. But in general the characteristics of both races and breeds are so permanent, and so well marked, that if an individual supposed to belong to any one of them were to produce an offspring not possessing them or possessing them only in part, with others not belonging to the race or breed, it would be just ground for suspecting a want of purity of blood. This being the acknowledged, and only proper sense and use of these terms, it fol- lows that no grade animals, and no animals not possessing fixed peculiarities or charac- teristics which they share with all other ani- mals of the class of which they are a type, and which they are capable of transmitting with certainty to their descendants, can be recognized by breeders as belonging to any one distinct race, breed, or family. The term ** native," or " scrub," is applied to a vast majority of our American cattle, which, though born on the soil, and thus in one sense natives, do not constitute a breed, race, or family. They do not possess char- acteristics peculiar to them all, which they transmit with any certainty to their off- spring, either of form, size, color, milking, or working properties. It does not follow, to be sure, that because an animal is made up of a mixture of blood, almost to infinity, he may not be, as an individual animal, and for specific purposes, one of the best of the spe- cies ; and for particular purposes individual animals might be selected from among those commonly called "natives" in New England, and "scrubs" at the south and west,equal, and perhaps superior, to any among the families produced by the most skilful breeding, not- withstanding the fact that they have sprung from a great variety of cattle procured at different times on the continent of Europe, in England, and in the Spanish West Indies, brought together without any regard to fixed principles of breeding, but from individual convenience, and by accident ; but it is true that our native cattle possess neither the size, the symmetry, nor the early maturity of tho short-horns ; they do not, as a general thing, possess the fineness of bone, the beauty of form and color, nor the activity of the Dev- ons or the Ilerefords ; nor do they possess that uniform goodness and quantity of milk of the Ayrshires, nor the surpassing richness of milk of the Jerseys ; but above all they do not possess the power of transmitting the many good qualities, which they often pos- sess in an extraordinary degree, to their off- spring, which is a characteristic of all well- established breeds. Now, to build up a breed, or family, on such a foundation, in the mode already indi- cated, requires great experience in selection, a quick and sure eye, and judgment of the true points in stock, a mind eminently un- prejudiced, and a patience and, perseverance perfectly indefatigable and untiring. It is absolutely necessary, also, to pay special at- tention to the calves thus produced — to fur- nish them at all times, summer and winter, with an abundant supply of nutritious food, and to regulate it according to their growth. Few men could be found either capable or willing to undertake the herculean task of building up a new breed in that way from grade stock. A prominent and almost insu- perable objection would meet them at the very outset, that it would require a long se- ries of years — longer than the natural life; of most men — to arrive at any very satisfac- tory results, from the fact that no two ani-' mals, made up, as our "native" cattle are, of such a variety of elements and crosses, could be found sufficiently alike to produce their kind. The principle that like produces like is perfectly true, and in the well-known breeds it is not difficult to find two animals that will be sure to transmit their own char- acteristics to their offspring; but with two animals which cannot be classed with any breed, the defects of an ill-bred ancestry will be liable to appear through several genera- tions to thwart and disappoint the expecta-' tions of the breeder. The second method is more feasible, and ; 42 AGRICULTURE IN" THE UNITED STATES. that is, to select animals from races already- improved and well-nigh perfected, to cross with our cattle, selecting such animals from the well-established breeds as are best calcu- lated for the special purposes for which we want them. If our object is to improve stock for the dairy, taking such only as be- long to a race distinguished for dairy qual- ities ; or, if resort must be had to other breeds less remarkable for such qualities, such only as have descended from large and generous milkers. We ought to be able to rely with some confidence upon getting the qualities which we seek. Milking or dairy qualities do not belong to any one breed or race exclusively, though, as they depend mainly on structure and temperament, which are hereditary to a considerable extent, they are, themselves, transmissible. In almost every breed we can find individual milkers which greatly surpass the average of the cows of the same family, and from such, many suppose good crosses may be expected without much regard to other circumstances. It is not accidental good qualities that we want, so much as those which are surely transmissible. We do not want to breed from an animal — a cow for instance — that is an exception to the rule of her race or fam- ily. A good calf from her Avould be, to a' great extent, the result of chance. We cannot expect nature to go out of her course, to give us a good animal, if we violate her known laws as developed by our knowledge of physiological structure. Such are a few of the considerations which, no doubt, led the early importers of the modern improved foreign stock to make an eflbrt on our native and grade cattle. What has been the result ? It can be clearly shown that there has been a large increase in the number of the cattle of the country. Of that there could, of course, be no ques- tion, since this increase would naturally fol- low from an addition of new territory and the more perfect development of the agricul- tural resources of the country. But I think it can be clearly shown, also, that there has been a positive improvement in the intrinsic qualities of the common stock of the coun- try as a whole. I am far from detracting from the merits of our native cattle. They are far better than could have been expected from the loose manner in which they were "made up." Many of them have great merit, and individual animals are to be found among them, as already remarked, which would be hard to beat by any pure bred an- imals. As working oxen, the native cattle of New England are unsurpassed by any in the known world, and they have the reputa- tion of being so, both in other parts of this country and in Europe, where their qualities are known. But they have their defects, and it is useless to blind our eyes to them. I expect, therefore, to be able to show that some actual progress has been efi'ected upon the common stock of the country. But to what is this progress owing ? Is it merely that which is due to better keeping, both summer and winter? I have already intimated that the treatment the cattle of the country received during the most of the last century was far from being calculated to improve them, scarcely, even, to keep them on foot. Even so late as 1841, Mr. Colman asserted that the general treatment of cows at that time, in New England, would not be an inapt subject of presentment by a grand jury. I was cognizant of the manner in which the stock was kept in many a coun- try town at that time, and I am strongly in- clined to agree with him ; and, judging from the well-known anxiety of those who enter milch cows now for premiums at the fairs, to show that their yield has been enormous, and that they have lived upon little or noth- ing, one would suppose their keeping was not much improved, even yet. But, as compared with the last century and the earlier part of this, there has been a vast improvement in the shelter, mode of feeding, and the general treatment, and this has, of course, had its eft'ect in increasing their milking qualities and their appearance. But, apart from this, there can be little doubt, I think, that there has been a positive improvement in our stock as a whole ; that is, the general average of the stock of New England is better than it was forty or fifty years ago. There were individual animals then, among the native or common stock of the country, whose yield of milk was quite remarkable, and would be, at the present day, and among the best stock of the present time ; but we cannot, and ought not to rea- son from individuals, but from the general average stock of the country. These remarks have special reference to the stock kept in the eastern and older sections of the country — those parts where the herds are small, and kept not so much for raising for beef as for their other prod- ucts, as milk, butter, cheese, and laboj^ MILCH COW. SHORT-HORN BULL. DOUBLE DUKE. AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 4i In the great west, where the cattle are, and have for some years, been kept to supply the stalls in our eastern markets, and where, after all, as compared with other sections and other objects, early maturity and a ten- dency to fatten are of transcendant impor- tance, no one could be so blind to the facts as to deny that there has been a vast and most gratifying progress even in the intrinsic qualities of the stock. Every car-load of those splendid Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois cattle shows this in a manner not to be mistaken. Compare them with the class of animals formerly, and even now in some sections, to be found at the west, and more commonly at the east, and mark the con- trast. The one is thrifty, grows rapidly, fats easy, and is ready at a very early age for the market, while from an eighth to a quarter part of the cost of labor and of keeping, which must be incurred every year in rais- ing such a class of animals as the other, is wholly lost from misapplication. In 1868, there were 21,433,099 head of cattle in the United States, of which over nine millions, (9,247,714,) were milch cows, nearly two millions (1,910,185) were work- ing oxen, and ten millions (10,275,200) other cattle, not including horses, sheep, or swine ; and the value of animals slaugh- tered amounted to the vast sum of more than three hundred and eighteen millions of dollars (318,721,895.) Now if by the keeping of better stock we add to their value and the profit derived from them, without in- creasing the cost, we make, of course an absolute gain on the receipts from the same amount of capital invested. A distinguished breeder places this in a clear light as fol- lows : " Suppose that the twenty-one millions of neat cattle now in the United States, by the infusion of better breeds among them generally, should, in their earlier maturity and increased product of milk and flesh, with an equal consumption of food, and by a moderately increased amount of care, pro- duce an additional profit of one-fifth, or only twenty per cent. — certainly a moderate es- timate— the annual value of such improve- ment will be that which is derived from an additional invested capital of thirty millions of dollars ; a vast sum in the aggregate of our agricultural wealth." This is a true statement now, and it applied with still greater force when the spirit of improvement began. But to return to the importation of modem improved stock from abroad for the specific purpose of improving the stock of this country. In the year 1783, three gen- tlemen of Baltimore— Messrs. Goff, Ringold, and Patton — sent to England for superior cattle ; and, in 1785, a bull from this impor- tation was taken to Kentucky, followed, not long after, by another lot of the same im- portation. A half-breed bull was taken to the same section about the year 1804, and is said to have greatly improved the stock of that state. Some of the cattle of that early importation were commonly called the " milk breed," and others the " beef breed." For a long time they went by the name of the " Patton stock." The beef breed were, probably, long-horns — large, coarse, and rough animals, but slow in maturing. The others are said to^have been short-horns. Others were also taken from Virginia to Kentucky, but none of them were, probably, pure bloods, although the Patton stock gained a wide and deserved reputation. In 1817, Colonel Sanders, of Kentucky, sent for twelve head of the best that could be found in England. Six of them were short-horns, or Teeswaters. Two of these short-horns were also imported for Kentucky in 1818. These various importations, com- mencing with the first high-bred animals taken to the west in 1785, were the pioneers; and though the pedigree of some of them could not be given, they not only infused superior blood into the stock of that region, but excited a spirit of emulation among the farmers there which had an exceedingly salutary effect. There is little doubt that some of the best cattle in southern Ohio owe their origin to the early imported ani- mals of Kentucky. A few short-horns were brought into Westchester county. New York, as early as 1792 and 1796. They were kept pure for some years, but finally became scattered, leaving their descendants in that section to this day. Other importations into New York were made as early as 1816 and 1822. In July, 1818, a short-horn bull, widely known as " Coelebs," and a heifer, " Flora," were im- ported into Massachusetts by Mr. Coolidge, and sold, in 1820, to Colonel Samuel Jaques, of Somerville. From " Coelebs," by select- ing superior native cows. Colonel Jaques succeeded in raising a fine milking stock, long known as the "" Creampots." " Flora " had fourteen calves between 1819 and 1833, ten of which were by " Coelebs." The same 48 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. year (1818), also, Gorliain Parsons, of Brigliton, Massachusetts, imported a pare breed short-horn bull, called " Fortunatus," or " Holderness," and his descendants were widely disseminated through New England. Another short-horn bull was brought into Massachusetts by Theodore Lyman, of Bos- ton, from whence he was shortly after sent io Maine; and, in 1825, Mr. W. Pierce, of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, imported a celebrated short-horn, " Nelson," and the cow " Symmetry," the parents of the great ox " Americus," so large as to be taken about on exhibition, for which purpose he was afterward taken to England. It was also in 1818 that Stephen Wil- liams, of Northboro', Mass., imported the famous bull " Young Denton," the sire of many very excellent grade animals, the heifers proving fine milkers. Many other fine short-horns were taken into Massachu- setts after the year 1820, but though they left some superior grades, they were not ap- preciated by the farmers generally, and at- tention was gradually directed to other breeds. New England, as a whole, is not the place for short-horns. They do better on more luxuriant pastures. Besides, they are not well adapted to the wants of the small dairy farmer, especially since the modern improvements of this justly cele- brated breed have taken all the milk out of them. For a region better adapted to rais- ing beef, and on naturally rich feed, they are unsurpassed for beauty and symmetry of form, for size and early maturity, and con- sequently for the profits they yield to the breeder and the grazier. In 1824, Mr. Powell, of Philadelphia, com- menced the importation of short-horns, and continued to. breed them with great enter- prise and success for many years. He had frequent sales, some of his stock going into Kentucky, others to Ohio, and elsewhere. But the great impulse given to the im- portation of short-horns, was the formation of the Ohio Company for Importing English Cattle, in 1834. The sum of $9,200 was subscribed in shares of $100 each, and agents sent abroad, who returned with nineteen head, selected from the herds of celebrated breeders, arriving in October of that year. They were kept together under the care of an agent, and the number was increased by other importations till 1836, when they were sold at public auction and scattered extensively over Ohio. A dividend of $280 per share was immediately declared on the ninety-two shares, amounting to $25,760. The following year they made another ex- tensive importation, which sold rapidly and well. Immense benefits have resulted from these efforts. The sketch given above of some of the earlier importations of short-horns, has been somewhat extended for the purpose of show- ing the gradually increasing and extending interest and enterprise in breeding, but since 1 840, importations of this magnificent breed have so far multiplied, that it would be out of place to attempt to follow them. The cream of the finest and most celebrated herds in England has been taken to this country, without regard to cost. Fabulous prices have been asked, and five and six thousand dollars for a single animal have, in some cases, been paid, to which was added the cost of transportation. So successful, indeed, have the more recent eff"orts been, that England has sent over here to buy short-horns from us ; and so admirably adapted to stock raising is the climate of Kentucky, that this fine breed has been improved there to such an extent, that very few of the last 150 cows selected from among the best in England, could win the prizes from those born and bred on our native soil. These superior animals are not all held in the hands of a few. They are within the reach of thrifty farmers, who are now awake to the profit of raising cattle that will make as much beef at two or three years old, as a native at double that age. It is proper to refer very briefly to the efforts made at various times to introduce and experiment with the other well-estab- lished English breeds, and the success which has attended these effbrts. In 1817, the Hon. Henry Clay, of Ken- tucky, made an attempt to introduce the Herefords into that state, by the purchase of two bulls and two heifers, at a cost of £105, or about $500. This was the first well authenticated importation of this breed of any note. The Herefords belong to the class of middle-horned cattle, and were in^ digenous to certain districts of England, where they were known as far back as tra- dition extends. They have undergone con- siderable changes within the last hundred years, commencing with the effbrts of Tom- kins, already alluded to — not however, by means of crosses with other races, but by careful and judicious selections. AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 49 In point of symmetry and beauty of form, the well-bred Herefords may be classed -with the improved short-horns, arriving, per- haps, a little slower at maturity, though re- markably inclined to take on fat. They never attain to such weights, but they gen- erally arrive at the Smithfield market at two or three years old, and so highly is their beautifully marbled beef esteemed, that it is eagerly sought by the butchers at a small advance, pound for pound, over the short-horn. Weighing less than the short- horns, they yield a larger weight of tallow, which is one reason of the preference for them. The short-horn produces more beef at the same age than the Hereford, but con- sumes more food in proportion. They have never been bred for milking or dairy qualities, and no farmer would think of resorting to them for that purpose. In 1824, Admiral Coffin, of the royal navy, presented the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, a Hereford bull and heifer, bred by Sir J. G. Cottrel from the Tomkins stock. The bull was kept by the Hon. J. C. Bates, of Northampton, Mass., and left a numerous progeny, which was very highly esteemed in that neighborhood. The largest importation into this country was that of Messrs. Corning and Sotham, of Al- bany, N. Y., in 1840, consisting of five bulls and seventeen cows and heifers. Other im- portations of the same breed were added to this herd in subsequent years. The Hon. L. A. Dowley, of Boston, imported several animals of the same breed in 1852, apart of which were kept for some time on the State Farm at Westboro', Mass., and were after- ward sold to Mr. John Merryman, of Bal- timore Co., Md., who has one of the largest and finest herds of Herefords in the country. It will be readily seen from the character- istics of the race, as stated above, that they would be ill adapted to the wants of New England farmers as a general thing. They are profitable for the grazier ; though, in a country of extreme fertility, like many parts of the west, and capable of bringing the short-horns to their highest development and perfection, they might not, on the whole, be able to compete successfully with them. The importation of Devons into this country has been more numerous. Indeed, there are some who assert that the native cattle of New England owe their origin chiefly to the Devons, since the cattle first brought into the Plymouth colony are pretty well known to have been shipped on the Devonshire coast. But that they were any thing like the modern Devons there is little evidence ; they certainly have very few of the highest characteristics of that race left. The general impression has arisen mainly from the fact that many of the native cattle of New England are red, and that is the favorite color. However this maybe, the improved North Devon is a very different animal from any that could, at that day, have been procured on the coast of Devonshire, or, in fact, any- where else. This race dates further back than its history goes. It has long been bred for beef, and for the working qualities of its oxen, which, perhaps, excel all other races in quickness, docility, and beauty, and the ease with which they are matched. But as milkers the North Dev m cows do not ex- cel, nor indeed do they equal, some of the other breeds. Some years ago a valuable importation was made by Mr. Patterson, of Baltimore, Md., who has bred them with special refer- ence to developing their milking qualities, and now they would be remarkable as dairy stock as compared with any other pure breed, but they are very different animals from the common modern improved Devons, the dairy qualities of which have been very much disregarded. The North Devons were also imported by the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, and were kept together for some time, and then disposed of. So far as size is concerned, they are better adapted to New England farms than either the short-horns or the Herefords, while the form and color are so beautiful as to make them admired by many. But the milking qualities having been to a considerable extent bred out of them, especially those more recently im- ported, we have little to gain by preferring them over our native stock. They are good for beef, for which purpose they are chiefly raised in their native country, but the pro- duction of beef throughout most of the older sections of the country is an entirely secon- dary object. They are good for labor, on ac- count of their quickness and ease of motion, but New England has equally good working oxen in its natives. They give rich milk, but the Jerseys give richer. The Ayrshires and the Jerseys are, and have for a long time been bred with special reference to the dairy. The former, though 50 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. a comparatively recent breed, were early im- ported into this country, and, I think, have, as a whole, proved very satisfactory, partic- ularly as giving valuable crosses w'ith our common stock. Grade Ayrshires are among the best animals for the use of small and dairy farms, and the cross-breds are, for all practical purposes, equal to the pure breds. One of the cows originally imported by John P. Gushing, of Massachusetts, gave in one year 3,864 quarts of milk, beer measure, being an average of over ten quarts a day for the year ; and the first Ayrshire cow im- ported by the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, in 1837, yielded sixteen pounds of butter a week for several weeks in succession on grass-feed only. Our climate is not so favorable to the production of milk as that of England and Scotland. No cow, imported after having arrived at maturity, could be expected to yield as much under the same circumstances, as one bred on the spot where the trial is made, and per- fectly acclimated. The Ayrshire cow gen- erally gives a larger return of milk for the food consumed than a cow of any other breed. Within the last 25 years the Jerseys have been extensively imported into this country by the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, and by many in- dividuals in New England, New York, and Maryland. They have their place among us, but it is not on the majority of our farms. They give richer milk, and that with greater uniformity, than any other known breed, but the quantity is usually small, which would not do for the milk dairyman. They are usually small in body, and rather large consumers. On a dairy farm devoted exclusively to the making of butter, an infusion of Jersey blood is highly desirable. One or two Jerseys in a herd of twenty will often make a perceptible differ- ence in the quantity and richness of butter. For gentlemen in the vicinity of cities, who keep but one or two cows to supply their own table, they are also especially adapted. They have consequently multiplied rapid- ly in the vicinity of cities on the Atlantic seaboard. In 1853 there were, for instance, but about seventy-five pure-bred Jerseys in Massachusetts ; now they number more than one thousand, while the grades are innumer- able, many of them proving to be very fine. The influence which the introduction of superior foreign stock has exerted, has not been confined to their own intrinsic merits, nor to the actual improvement which they have eff'ected by means of crossing upon the common stock of the country. It has led to better treatment of native stock, partly by increasing, to some extent, the interest in cattle and the knowledge of their wants and requirements, and partly from the fact that there was a general disposition among the mass of farmers to say that if the natives were kept as well, they would outstrip the fancy stock. But still the improvement in the common stock of the eastern and middle states, or those portions devoted to the dairy and other stock interests than the raising of beef, over and above what can be ascribed to better treatment, has been small compared with what it has been in those states de- voted more exclusively to grazing. During the past ten or twelve years, for example, the live stock of Ohio has increased in valuation — according to the official returns made to the state auditor — more than two hundred per cent., while, in the same time, no class of stock has increased in numbers one hundred per cent. A part of this, to be sure, may be fairly ascribed to an increased demand for stock, and a consequent higher value, but there can be no question that intrinsically better animals have superseded the inferior native stock to a considerable extent. The number of horned cattle in that state, in 1836, was 372,866, valued at $2,982,928. In 1846 the number had increased to 920,- 995 head, and the valuation to $7,527,123. In 1850 the number was 1,103,811, and the valuation $11,315,560. In 1868 the number was 1,496,750, and the valuation was $5 7,6 44,- 730. The ratio of increase in value has been greatly accelerated since the means of commu- nication by railway have so greatly increased the facilities for information. When the first great importation and sale was made, in 1834-6-7, it was not accessible to the mass of cattle breeders, and acquired more of a local than a general reputation. What is true of Ohio is true to nearly an equal, if not even greater extent of most of the other western states. While speaking of the diff"erent objects for which cattle are kept in various parts of the country, it may be interesting to com- pute the actual products, per cow, in butter and cheese in the several sections. Accord- ing to the census of 1850, the average num- ber of pounds of butter produced per cow, per annum, in the various states, was as follows : — AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 61 lbs. per cow. Florida 4.4 Texas 38.4 California 15.1 Oregon 18.8 Georgia 18.0 South Carolina... 19.0 North Carolina... 20.8 Alabama 26.2 Arkansas 23.8 Mississippi 24.2 Tennessee 58.2 Missouri 36.8 Kansaa 38.3 Virginia 40.7 Rhode Island 51.9 Kentucky 43.4 Louisiana 11.1 lbs. per cow. Illinois 53.7 Maryland 52.7 Indiana 50.4 Iowa 62.9 Delaware 63.3 Winconsin 67.0 Massachusetts . . .57.5 Ohio 71.9 Minnesota 73.3 Maine 79.4 Michigan 86.2 New Hampshire.. 73.3 Connecticut 77.0 Pennsylvania ... .89.9 New Jersey 77.1 Vermont 91.0 New York 91.7 Some of the states, like New York, for in- stance, sell vast quantities of milk in its natural state, and yet the quantity of butter per cow will be found to be large compared with those states where cattle are kept more especially for beef. To conclude that the stock of Kentucky, Illinois, or Ohio is infe- rior to that of New York because the yield of butter per cow is inferior, would be pre- mature. The objects for which the stock of those states is kept are different, and for the purposes of grazing, the cattle of the western states may be far better adapted than any other would be. Let us now see what is the amount of cheese annually produced per cow in the several states. In some of them it appears to be infinitesimally small. The list stands as follows, beginning with a hundredth part of a pound : — lbs. per cow. South Carolina. . .01 Mississippi 02 Georgia 05 Louisiana 05 Florida 06 Alabama 07 Maryland 08 Arkansas 09 North Carolina.. .22 Delaware ... .26 Texas 45 Tennessee 55 Kentucky 76 Missouri 77 Virginia 87 Kansas. 1.14 New Jersey. .... 1.32 Indiana 1.67 lbs. Nebraska Oregon Illinois Pennsylvania. . . Utah Iowa Minnesota Wisconsin California Rhode Island Michigan Maine New Hampshire. Connecticut Ohio Massachusetts . . New York Vermont per cow. 2.08 2.11 3.65 4.00 4.83 4.90 5.01 5.40 6.49 9.12 9.13 12.24 23.67 30.95 32.00 36.68 43.21 47.08 The total number of pounds of cheese produced in the United States in 1860, was 103,548,868, of which 48,548,289 pounds, — almost one-half — was made in the state of New York, 21,618,893 in Ohio, 8,215,030 poimds in Vermout, 5,294,090 in Massachus- etts, 3,898,411 in Connecticut, 2,508,556 in Pennsylvania, and 2,232,092 in New Hamp- shire. The other twenty-nine states and territories only made about fifteen million pounds in all. This production was equiva- lent to about three and one-third pounds to each inhabitant. The export in 1860 was 23,252,000 pounds. The manufacture of both butter and cheese has greatly increased within the decade 1860-1870. There are in the United States over 1,200 factories for making butter and cheese, using the milk of about 700,000 cows. We have no reliable statistics of the quantity of either butter or cheese made since 1860, as these statistics can only be obtained (and not very accu- rately even then) by the machinery of a general census. The exports of cheese in 1868 were 51,097,203 pounds of an invoiced value of $7,010,424. The price of both but- ter and cheese has greatly advanced within twenty years. The estimated average value of both, in 1850, was ten cents per pound. In 1860 this had increased to about twenty- five cents for the butter and fifteen for the cheese. The present average is not less than thirty cents for butter and about seventeen for cheese. Let us now consider the propor- tion of cows kept in the various states to the population. We give the proportion of milch cows in 1868, and the estimated population of that year, as the. latest available, and have, added the average value of cows in each state, the same year. The proportion to the pop- ulation is stated in decimals : — No. Cows Avr'ge Statk. per head value topopula. of cows Maine 0.J9 $51.38 NewHampshire 0.21 55.00 Vermont 0.57 60.07 Massachusetts. 0.11 ai.^ Rhode Island.. 0.10 60.00 Connecticut.... 0.23 66.66 New York.... 0.32 54.14 New Jersey... . 0.15 70.50 Pennsylvania.. 0.16 4711 Delaware 0.13 40.00 Maryland 0.11 45.44 Virginia 0.20 28.76 North Carolina 0.19 20.71 South Carolina 0.18 23.85 Georgia 0.22 22.36 Florida 0.43 15.0(1 Alabama 0.17 21.33 Mississippi 0.18 22.91 State. Louisiana Texas Arkansas Tennessee West Virginia. Kentucky Missouri Illinois Indiana Ohio Michigan Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Kansas Nebraska California No. Cows Avr'ge per head value topopula. of cows 0.06 0.70 0.19 0.17 0.17 0.11 0.22 0.20 0.24 0.26 0.24 0.31 0.31 0.35 0.36 0.42 0.34 $20.28 9.12 21.75 28.04 34.23 36.46 31.21 38.11 36.48 43.00 44.62 37,25 38.53 36.13 30.67 41.00 50.31 The products from stock might be stated in another interesting point of view as fol- lows : The northern states, comprising Ne\Nr England, New York, New Jersey, and Penn- sylvania, with 166,358 sq. miles, and a popu- 52 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. lation of 10,594,168, keeping 2,615,929 milch cows, produced, according to the census of 1860, 295,230,136 pounds of butter and cheese, valued at $73,807,514. They kept, also, 460,101 oxen, and 2,128,107 other cat- tle, not, of course, including horses, sheep, or swine. At the same time the western states, and the territories, with an area of 1,918,216 sq. miles and a population of 8,535,538, had 2,526,813 milch cows, and manufactured 179,051,294 pounds of butter and cheese, valued at $44,762,823. They had also 566,- 039 oxen, and 4,348,086 other cattle. The southern states, with 851,448 sq. miles, and a population of 12,240,294, had 3,040,914 milch cows, and manufactured 80,925,845 pounds of butter and cheese, valued at $16,- 185,169. They also had 1,011,112 working oxen, and 7,450,290 other cattle. The aggre-| gate number of neat cattle was given in 1840 at 14,971,586, and in 1850 at 17,778,907. The amount of butter produced in 1850 was 313,266,962 pounds, and that of cheese 105,- 535,219 pounds ; neither of which were given in 1840 as separate items. We had, in 1850, 1,700,744 working oxen ; and of other cattle, 16,078,163. The entire number of milch cows in 1860 was 8,581,735; of working oxen, 2,254,911, and of other neat cattle, 14,779,- 373, making a total of 25,618,019. The amount of butter produced in 1860 was 459,681,372 pounds, and of cheese 103,663,- 927 pounds. These results, should be supple- mented by the statistics of 1868 inasmuch as the need of provisions for the great war of 1861-5, and the prevalence of cattle disease, a part of the time materially lessened the rate of increase of this class of live stock. There were in February, 1869, in the country, 9,247,714 milch cows, valued at $361,752,676, and 12,185,385 oxen and other neat cattle, valued at $306,211,473, making a total of 21,433,099 neat cattle, valued at $667,964,149; a falling off of nearly 4,200,000 in the number of cattle, the diminution, falling wholly on working oxen and cattle for slaughter, since the milch cows had increased by about 666,000. HORSES. That the horses in this country have un- dergone a vast change and improvement dur- ing the last century — or, rather, during the last half century — there can be no doubt. A simple change in the uses to which horses are put, would naturally have produced a change in the horses themselves, without any well- directed effort at breeding. For, as we have seen in our previous sketch of the condition of things during the last century, which con- tinued with slight local modifications even into the present century, the chief means of carrying on our inland business, including a vast amount of heavy transportation, was the horse. The roads were in a most wretched condition, compared with the ad- mirable roads of the present day, except, of course, those in the more thickly settled por- tions around the larger centres of popula- tion. They were seldom built of any thing but the natural soil thrown up from the sides, and often not this. The forest was felled, and the ground left for many a thousand miles without the precaution of making any side ditches at all, and over such a pathway the freight of a great part of the country was to be moved, in wagons made so as to be capable of the hardest usage. Over such roads light carriages would have been com- paratively useless, and a speed now seen every day, would have been unsafe for them. The mail contracts over a very large part of the country were made at a speed lower than four and five miles an hour, and heavily loaded teams, and heavy mail and passen- ger coaches, kept the roads for a considera- ble part of the year in a state not calculated to encourage fast driving. The farmer had to haul his produce often long distances to market, and needed a heavy kind of horse. Now he has a market almost at his very door. The long line of lumbering teams is rarely seen. The old mail coach has little left to do. As many horses are now re- quired, and even more than before, but their work is very different. The vast improve- ments in agricultural implements have also lightened the labors of the horse. Our wagons are of lighter construction, our ploughs run easier, our lands are freer from rocks and stumps, and quick, hardy horses often take the place of oxen, and of the larger, heavier, and much slower horses of half a century ago. The farmer or the country gentleman who is accustomed to ride in the cars at the rate of thirty or forty miles an hour, would not be satisfied to step out of them and have to travel at the rate of five or six miles an hour. So that the purposes for which horses are now wanted are, as a general thing, very dif- ferent from what they used to be. Speed, which was formerly little required, is now considered an indispensable requisite in a good horse, and though our horses are made AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 63 up, as we shall see, of almost, if not quite as great a variety of blood, and with as little regard to the true principles of breeding, as our native cattle, yet they are, in many re- spects, distinct from all other horses. They possess, in many sections of the country, a surpassing degree of speed and power of endurance, the result, in part, of the altered condition of things, and greatly, also, of more attention to breeding and training. The first horses taken from Europe to the western continent, were brought over by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493, and the first introduced into any part of the territory now comprised within the United States, were brought over and landed in Florida by Cabega de Yaca, in 1527. These numbered forty-two, but all perished for some cause or other soon after their arrival. The horses found wild on the plains of Texas and the western prairies are, probably, descendants of the fine Spanish horses aban- doned by De Soto on the failure of his expe- dition and the return of his disheartened ad- venturers. In 1604, a French lawyer, M. L'Escarbot, brought over horses to Acadia, and from there the French, who extended their settlements into Canada in 1608, took the horses which, probably, laid the founda- tion of what are now known as Canadian ponies, having, no doubt, lost much of their original size by the severity of the climate and limited summer forage. Though degen- erated in size, they still show traces of Nor- man blood, from which they probably sprang. In 1 609 six mares and a horse were taken to the settlement at Jamestown, in Virginia, and in 1657 the exportation of horses from that colony was strictly prohibited. In 1629-30 horses were introduced into the colony of the Massachusetts Bay by Higgin- son. These were brought from Leicester- shire, in England. The Dutch West India Company had imported horses from Flan- ders, probably, into New York, in 1625, and it is thought by some that the Conestogas derive their origin from this source. The French, who settled in Illinois in 1682, had many Canadian horses, which were allowed to run on the extensive "ranges" in their vicinity. Thus we see, in part, the varied sources from which the native horses of this country came. To these were added, from time to time, in the middle and southern states, more or less of thorough-bred, or racing stock, which essentially modified the stock with which it became mixed. The horses of New England, especially of Vermont and Massachusetts, have been used chiefly as roadsters and for general utility. They pos- sess the most admirable qualities of power, speed, and endurance, and, for quick work and travel on the road, they are unsurpassed by any horses in the world. Low, in his "History of Domestic Animals," says of the people of this country: "They prefer the trot to the paces more admired in the old continent, and, having directed attention to the conformation which consists with this character, the fastest trotting horses in the world are to be found in the United States." Among the changes which have been effected within the last fifty years in the horses of New England, on which the high encomium given by Prof. Low is chiefly based, none, certainly, have been more mark- ed than the increase of speed. Fast trotting was scarcely known in the time of the old "Justin Morgan," nor was the speed of the horse considered of any special money value till the invention of the modern light buggy and the improvement of the roads, already alluded to. This quality has now become essential to the convenience and comfort of nearly all classes of society. Most people want a horse to go off easily at the rate of eight, ten, or twelve miles an hour, and the horses that do it are now very common, whereas formerly, they were only the very rare exception to the general rate of speed. A demand very soon creates a supply, and the farmer who breeds horses knows his own interest well enough to study the tastes of the community, and to breed accordingly. In point of speed, therefore, there can be no question that a very great increase has been attained by careful breeding, particularly within the last twenty years. In other points some improvement has been made, such as general good qualities of style, ac- tion, temper, form, constitution, and endur- ance. The aggregate money value has beer. greatly increased, because the number of fast horses and the general average of in- trinsic good qualities in horses has been in- creased, and these command their value. But, perhaps, the tendency has been to con- gregate the best horses in the cities and large towns, and to draw them from the country. Few farmers want to keep a horse for farm and general purposes, that will bring from two or three to five hundred dol- lars. 54 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. Two distinct varieties of horses are now, and have for the last few years been favorites for the road. Neither of these can have any pretensions to the claim of being a distinct race, though they have both become distinct families, well known under their respective names. The peculiarities of both are so well marked, as not to deceive the practised eye. Of these, the Morgan has been alluded to, as deriving its name from the owner of the founder of the family, or the old " Justin Morgan," foaled in West Springfield, Mass., in 1793. The sire of this remarkable stal- lion is supposed to have been " True Briton," a half thorough-bred. The old "Justin Morgan " soon went to Vermont, 1*795, and there laid the foundation of the Morgans of that state, producing the celebrated " Bul- rush," " Woodbury," and " Sherman " Mor- gans, all of which added vastly to the wealth of the breeders and farmers of that section. The descendants of these horses have been spread far and wide. The " Justin Morgan " was a small horse, only about fourteen hands high, and weighing only about nine hundred and fifty pounds. The Morgan horse of the present day is of somewhat larger size, and usually varies from nine hundred and fifty to ten hundred and fifty pounds. He is re- markable for compactness of form, strength, and docility ; and for the infinite variety of purposes for which the New England horses are wanted, is probably unsurpassed. He is much sought after for use on the road, and in omnibuses, hacks, and lighter carriages. The other family, also widely known, not only in New England, but throughout the country, is the Black Hawk. The foun- der of this family was a horse of that name, celebrated for transmitting his qualities to his offspring, as well as for his great speed as a trotter. He was kept in Vermont till his death in 1856, at the age of twenty-three years. As roadsters, the Black Hawks are often very excellent, possessing a high and nervous style of action, an elastic step, and a symmetrical and muscular forai. It is not too much to say that those two classes of horses have added many millions of dollars to the value of the horses of this country. They infused a new spirit into the business of breeding in New England, and had an eff*ect on the enterprise of the farming com- munity, similar to that which the introduc- tion of short-horns had on the general im- provement of the stock of the western states. The style of horse which has been most imported and bred in the southern states, especially in Maryland and Virginia, is quite diff"erent. The cavaliers cultivated and en- couraged the sports of the turf, and the thorough-bred was early introduced, and bred with much enterprise. Good saddle horses, which in New England are compara- tively rare, are very common at the south, where the manly and healthful exercise of horseback-riding has for a long time been almost universally practised, both as a pas- time and a common mode of tmvelling. The interest in breeding thorough-bred horses has been kept up in Kentucky, also, and some of the most renowned running horses of this country hail from that state. There is a difference of opinion among good judges of horses, as to whether the cross of the thorough-bred horse on the common horse of the country would effect any improvement when viewed from the stand-point of general utility. For special purposes, as for the production of good sad- dle horses, the value of this cross would, no doubt, be conceded. But the gait most highly prized and most desirable for gen- eral utility is the trot, and the mechanical structure best adapted to trotting and run- ning is quite different. At the same time it must be admitted, I think, that some of our best trotters have had strong infusions of thorough-bred blood. Some say, how- ever, that the form of the thorough-bred has been changed, and so far as compactness, muscle, and endurance are concerned, degen- erated. This is an opinion merely, which would apply with greater force to the gen- eral average of thorough-breds or racers in England than in this country. The experi- ment is undergoing full and fair trial in New England at the present time. The Conestoga is a large and very heavy breed of horses, often met with in the mid- dle states, and used mostly for the purposes of slow draught in the drays of our large towns and cities. But while it is evident that the intrinsic value of our American horses has been vast- ly improved, their aggregate number has also been greatly increased during the last fifty years. Unfortunately, the census of 1 840 did not take an account of horses by themselves, and we cannot tell, with exact- ness, the ratio of increase from that time to 1850, when the number of horses, exclu- sive of those of large cities and large towns, which were not returned, was 4,336,719. o > o a # .#':|' ^ 3 o 2 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 69 The number of horses, mules, and asses, in 1840, was 4,335,669, while the aggregate number of these classes in 1850 was 4,896,- 050, that of mules and asses being 559,331. The number of horses in the United States in 1860, including those in cities and towns, was 7,434,688, and excluding these, as in 1840 and 1850, 6,249,174. The number of asses and mules was 1,317,934, or excluding those in cities and towns, 1,151,148. The war made sad havoc with these animals, con- siderable numbers being killed on the battle- fields, but vastly more by overwork, expos- ure, and malignant epidemics. In 1869, the number of horses was 6,332,793, (a falling off of over a million from 1860 ;) their aver- age value was $84.16, and their aggregate value $533,024,787. The same year the number of mules (number of asses not given) was 921,662 ; their average value $106,74, and their aggregate value $98,386,359. The present number of horses is about one to every six and a half inhabitants. The south, by the census of 1860, had 2,571,243 horses; the west had 2,179,802 ; and the north had 1,280,719. Another branch of farming which has been subject to more or less vicissitude, is that of sheep husbandry. The first sheep imported into this country were, probably, those taken into Virginia in 1609. They came from England, and thrived so well that in 1648 they had increased to three thousand. About the year 1625, some sheep were introduced into New York by the Dutch West India Company. These came from Holland, and, together with others which ar- rived in 1630, proved to be too much of a temptation to dogs and wolves, for it is stated that in 1643 there were not more than sixteen sheep in the whole colony. Sheep were brought into the Plymouth colony, and that of the Massachusetts Bay, very soon after the settlement. They were kept on the islands in Boston harbor as early as 1633, and in 1635 the number of sheep in the New Hampshire settlement, near Portsmouth, was ninety-two. In 1652 the number of sheep in and around Boston had. largely increased, since there were four hundred in Charlestown. In 1 660 they were introduced upon the island of Nantucket, and the raising of wool grew up to be of some importance there. 4 Sheep husbandry, in the earlier history of the country, was carried on very differently, for the most part, from what it has been more recently. There were few extensive flocks, but in the days of homespun it was very common for the farmer to keep a num- ber sufiicient for home consumption. In fact, it was almost a matter of necessity. But the old native sheep was a coarse, long- legged, and unprofitable animal. The first fine-woolled sheep introduced into the coun- try were those brought from Spain by Mr, Wm. Foster, of Boston, in 1793. He speaks of them as follows : — " In April, 1793, on returning from Cadiz, where I had been passing several years, I brought out an original painting, by Mu- rillo, and three merino sheep — two ewes and a ram — the export of which, at that time, was severely prohibited, and attended with much difficulty and risk. We had a long passage — seventy-five days — and the sheep were in a dying condition. Fortu- nately, there was on board a Frenchman, that had been with the Spanish shepherds, who cured them by administering injections. Being about to leave this country for France, soon after my arrival in Boston, I presented these sheep to Mr. Andrew Craigie, of Cam- bridge, who, not knowing their value at that time, ' simply ate them,' as he told me years after, when I met him at an auction, buying a merino ram for $1,000." Another small importation of merinos was made in 1802, and again in 1809 or 1810, about which time a complete merino fever ran through the whole farming community, which had its day, and then subsided. The embargo of 1808 led many to turn their attention to wool growing, and fine wool soon rose to the high price of $1.50 and $2.00 a pound. In 1809-10, no less than 3,650 merinos were imported and dis- tributed throughout the United States. The importance of these early importations can hardly be overestimated. They furnished our woollen manufactories with the raw ma- terial at a time when it would have been ex- tremely difficult to obtain it from abroad. In the ten years from 1840 to 1850, the sheep of the United States increased two and a half millions, and numbered about twenty-two millions, or more accurately, 21,723,220. But in New England there was a remark- able falling off" from 3,811,307 in 1840, to 2,164,452 in 1850, making a loss of forty- five per cent., while in the five sea-board 60 AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl- vania, Delaware and Maryland, the decrease was twenty-two per cent. The increase was chiefly in the southern and western states. The production of wool steadily increased, for in 1840 we raised 35,802,114 pounds, valued at $11,345,318; in 1850 we raised 52,516,959 pounds, worth $15,755,088; and in 1855 we raised 61,560,379 pounds, worth $23,392,944, being a gain of forty-six per cent. But as some evidence of improve- ment, it may be stated that the average weight of fleece increased from 1.84 pounds in 1840, to 2.43 in 1850. In 1860, the number of sheep had increased to 23, 977,- 085, a gain of about 2,200,000. There was again a heavy falling otF in the New England states, which had only 1,880,767, about 367,000 less than in 1850. The Middle States had 4,629,285, a loss of a little more than a million. The South had 5,674,000, a gain of a little more than 1,100,000, of which fully nine-tenths was in Texas. The west, including thcterritories, had 11,750,877, an increase of nearly 2,250,000 ; mainly in California, New Mexico, Michigan, Missouri, and Minnesota. The amount of wool produc- ed in 1860 was 60,264,913 pounds, about 1,300,000 pounds less than in 1855, though the price being a little higher, it brought about the same amount. During the decade 1860-70 great attention has been paid to wool-growing and sheep-raising. For several years the high price of wool and of mutton stimulated this to an unhealthy degree ; for the last three years the price of wool has been less and the markets over-glutted with mutton, and there are not probably so many sheep in the country now as in 1865 or 1866. The Agricultural Report gives the number in February, 1869, as 37,724,279 (an increase of nearly fourteen millions since 1860, or about sixty per cent. ; ) their aver- age value as $2.17, and their aggregate value at $82,139,979. The wool product of 1868 was about one hundred and five million pounds, an advance of about seventy per cent, on that of 1860. The profits of sheep raising have been greatly reduced by the ravages of mean, sheep stealing dogs, especially in the Atlantic states. We are not, therefore, surprised to find that the number of sheep in Massachusetts declined from 378,226 in 1840, to 188,651 in 1850, and to 23,445 in 1860. This great evil has now been remedied in some of the eastern fetates, Massachusetts taking the lead, by a law designed for the protection of sheep against dogs, which offers great inducements for entering again upon the business of sheep raising, and many are now availing them- selves of it. Growing mutton and lamb for the market at even the present moderate prices of those articles in the eastern mar- kets, is not an unprofitable branch of farm- ing; the early spring lambs, especially, bring- ing a good remuneration to the grower. The great supply of mutton for the eastern markets comes from the prairie states, where it can be grown much cheaper than is possi- ble on the Atlantic coast. In the meantime the capacities and the adaptation of the climate of the south for the raising of wool are being more and more appreciated, and that section is growing more wool. It has been shown by the expe- rience of the last ten years, that by proper attention to breeding, the hilly portions even of the extreme south may be profita- bly devoted to the production of wool. At the World's Fair, at London, in 1851, the fleece that commanded the highest premium for the fineness and beauty of staple, was grown in Tennessee. Germany, Spain, Sax- ony, and Silesia were there in strong and honorable competition. "Nature," says the owner of th« premium fleece, "gave me the advantage in climate, but the noble lords and wealthy princes of Europe did not know it, neither did my own countrymen know it, until we met in the Crystal Palace of Lon- don, before a million of spectators. While their flocks were housed six months in the year, to shelter them from the snow of a high latitude, and were fed from the grana- ries and stock-yards, mine were roaming over the green pastures of Tennessee, warmed by the genial influence of a summer sun ; the fleece thus softened and rendered oily by the warmth and green food, producing a flne, even fibre." The American Commissioner of the Paris Exhibition of 1867, states that our woolen manufactures, in the quality of the wool, and in efficiency of system, processes and ma- chinery of fabrication, are on an equality with the most advanced nations. The total product of wool in the United States in 1867, was one hundred fifteen million pounds, a little more than double that of 1850, and fifty-five million pounds more than the yield of 1860. The import of wool the previous year (1866,) had been 67,917,031 pounds, but the tariff" of IB 6 7 raising the duty on SOUTHERN PINE WOODS HOO. WESTERN BEECH NUT HOG. IMPROVED SUTTOLK. IMPROVED ESSEX BEEKSHERB HOa. AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 63 foreign wool, the importation dropped at once to 36,318,299 pounds. The export of wool the same year was 307,418 pounds. The value of the imported wool was $5,915,- 178, and of the exported $130,857, leaving a balance against us of $5,784,321. The im- ports of woolen manufactures the same year amounted to $45,813,212, and on exports of woolen goods of our own 'manufacture were less than $100,000. The consumption of raw wool for the years 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, and 1866, averaged one hundred and forty-five million pounds per annum. It fell oflf slightly in the last four years, 1867-70. We have no later statistics of the quantity of wool actually grown in the different sec- tions of the country than those of the census of 1860, though the number of sheep in each section in 1868 and 1869, may enable us to approximate the quantities of these years. In 1860 there were 6,578,064 pounds of wool produced in the New England States, a falling oflf of 500,000 pounds from 1850. In 1868 the number of sheep in that section had increased about 830,000, and there must have been, therefore, about 2,900,000 pounds more of wool produced there than in 1860, or about 9,400,000 pounds in all. The Middle States, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylva- nia, Delaware, Maryland, and the District of Columbia, in 1860 produced 15,098,058 pounds of wool, about 375,000 pounds less than in 1850. The number of sheep in those states had increased in 1868 about 4,300,- 000,' being 8,905,462, and, consequently, their wool production in that year should have been about 25,800,000 pounds. The Southern states grew 9,867,271 pounds in 1860, an advance of 1,530,000 pounds on the yield of 1850. Between 1860 and 1868 the number of sheep in that section had de- creased 700,000, so that their production of wool was hardly more than 8,650,000 pounds in 1868. The western states and territories produced in 1860, 28,721,160 pounds, and this when they had but 11,750,877 sheep. In 1868 they had 26,599,416 sheep, and should have produced, as they probably did, not less than 60,000,000 pounds, or the en- tire product of the whole country in 1860. To conclude, therefore, we have made most decided progress, especially in the last forty years, both in the numbers and in the intrinsic value of our flocks. BWINE, AND THE PORK BUSINESS. Few animals are so susceptible of change and improvement in the hands of the skillful breeder as the hog. This animal comes to maturity in so much less time than the horse or the cow, and increases with so muck greater rapidity, as to offer larger induce- ments to improve and perfect it. Ferdinand de Soto probably brought the first swine into this country, in 1 538. These came from Cuba, and were landed in Flor- ida. They were probably descended from some brought over by Columbus in 1493. The Portuguese, it is well known, brought swine into Nova Scotia and Newfoundland as early as 1553, where they rapidly multi- plied. The London Company imported swine in- to Virginia in 1609. They increased so fast, that in 1627 the colony was in danger of being overrun with them, while the In- dians fed on pork from the hogs that had become wild from running at large in the woods. Meantime, they were introduced into the: Plymouth colony in 1624, by Gov. Winslow,, and into New Netherlands — now New York — in 1625, by the Dutch West India Com- pany.. In all the colonies, as well as in the- French settlements in Illinois, they were air lowed to run at large with considerable free- dom, and fed on mast, though it was soon found that pork fed on Indian corn was much sweeter than that mast-fed. It is not probable that any special atten- tion was paid to breeding, with reference to> improving this animal, till near the close of the last century. The first improvements, eflfected that excited any considerable inter- est, seem to have been produced by a pair- of pigs sent from Woburn Abbey by the- Duke of Bedford to General Washington- Parkinson, the Englishman to whom they were entrusted for delivery to the general,. was dishonest enough to sell them on his ar- rival in this country. They were long known as the Woburn, and, in some sections, as the Bedford hog, and were originated by a for- tunate cross of the Chinese and the large English hog. There is no doubt they were splendid animals, with many fine points, sniall bones, deep, round barrel, short legs, feeding easily, and maturing early, and often weighing at a year or a year and a half old, from four to seven hundred pounds, with light offal, and the first quality of flesh. They were mostly white — somewhat spotted. They were very common at one time in Maryland, Delaware, and Virginia, and were bred somewhat exten- sively by Gen. Ptidgeley, of Hampton— a fin,„ ,a«; io^ Other Cattle. 10,293,069 14,671,400 J lAi«^.'«» Sheep 21,723,220 23,317,756 37,724,279 8wine 30,354,213 32,555,267 23,316,476 The value of all the live stock, in 1850, was reckoned at $544,180,516. In 1860 it had a little more than doubled, being $1,- 089,329,915. In January, 1869, their value had increased about 50 per cent., though, owing to the extraordinary demand of the war, their numbers had not greatly increased, except sheep which had risen from twienty- three millions to thirty-eight milHons. The estimated value of the live stock of the country, in January, 1869, according to data furnished by the Agricultural Department, was $1,527,704,029. The value of the crops of any particular year are ascertained with difficulty and only approximately. In 1866, those of twenty- two of the northern states were reported by the Agricultural Department as having been, in 1863, $955,764,322; in 1864, $1,504,- 543,690; and in 1865, $1,047,360,167. During these years the crops of the southern states were greatly disturbed by the war, and comparatively little of their great sta- ples— cotton, rice, and sugar — ^were planted. The aggregate value of the ten largest crops, in 1868, viz.: Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, potatoes, tobacco, hay and cotton, (omitting rice, sugar, wool, but- ter, cheese, hemp, flax, silk, wine, honey, orchard, market, garden and small fruits, and slaughtered animals,) no returns being given from the territories, or any part of the Pacific slope, except California, was $1,811,674,495 and this when most of the crops were below the average. The census return of the crops of 1869, will be considerably more than $2,500,000,000. The agricultural productions of the Pacific slope, though differing somewhat from those of the Atlantic states, are fast rivaling them in proportionate value. The long dry sea- son, while it prohibits some crops, is favora- ble to others, and, by the very general intro- duction of irrigation, the production of wheat, of a peculiar but highly nutiitious character, of the grape and other fruits, and of immense root crops, is already surpassing that of the farming lands of the east. The vintage of California already supplies a large portion of the wine consumed in the United States, and its wheat is largely exported. The state is also devoting great attention to silk culture. Texas and the western portion of the Gulf region, on the other hand, proves to be the finest grazing country in the world, and its millions of cattle and sheep will ere long supply the markets of the continent. With a variety of climate which enables its agri- culturists to cultivate all the productions of the temperate, and most of those of the semi-tropical zone, there is a boundless fu- ture of prosperity for the agriculturist of the United States to look forward to, and he may well hope and expect that his country will, at no distant day, furnish to the world in rich profusion whatever of the products of agriculture they may need. COTTON CULTURE. CHAPTER I. ABUNDANCE OF LAND— HIGH WAGES OP LABOR DEPENDENT ON COTTON AND GOLD. The high prices of labor in our country, and the large profits of capital, have been re- marked from the earliest period of our his- tory. Adam Smith, in his "Wealth of Na- tions," proposed an explanation of these two peculiarities, and there is no doubt that his keen insight discovered their true cause in the abundance and cheapness of good land. The large products of our rich virgin soil, purchased from the Indians at a mere nominal price, enabled the farmer to oifer high wages to th6 laborer, and large interest to the capitalist. The owner of the land, who was generally a laborer himself, paid no rent, and had made but a small outlay to purchase his farm, so that nearly the whole of his product was the reward of labor. If he could find a poor man who had not means enough to purchase and stock a farm, he could afford to offer him high wages, because he would be himself more than paid by his increased products. These high wages soon enabled the hired laborer to become a land- proprietor himself, and both were then com- petitors in the market for all the labor that could be hired. This competition forced the rate of wages as high as their abundant crops authorized them to pay. The artisans of the towns were tempted from their shops by the large reward offered for their labor in the country ; and the few who remained at their trades asked high prices for their work. Tliese they readily obtained, for their only competitors were across the sea. tliree thou- sand miles distant, with slow and irregular communication, so that the foreign mechanics could not force those who were here to reduce their prices to the standard of the old world. Thus, in the town and the country, in mechanical as well as agri- cultural labor, a high rate of wages was kept up by the abundance and cheapness of good land. As capital is an aid to labor, by enlarging its products, the rate of interest is high where labor is productive. The distrust of capitalists who were separated from us by the wide Atlantic, and their ignorance of our pursuits, and means, and credit, prevented them from entering into competition with the capitalists here, so that they easily ob- tained all the borrower was able to pay. This was a very high rate, because the money was of great advantage. Whether the farmer borrowed it to buy more lands, or ploughs, or stock, or the mechanic to en- large his powers of production by new ma- chines, or tools, or materials, both were able to pay a large per-centage, on account of th« profits of their increased business. Thus cheap, rich lands not only advanced the rate of wages, but of interest also. This explanation was satisfactory during all the period of our colonial history. It was still plausible after the war of Indepen- dence, for, although our population had ad- vanced into the interior, and the price of lands along the sea-board had risen so that the products of the soil were charged, before they could be exported, with rent or with the cost of inland transportation, leaving a smaller portion of the proceeds for the share of the laborer, the wars in Europe con- nected with the French Revolution increased the demand for breadstuff's, and maintained them at high prices. Our neutral position gave us the carrying trade between the bel- ligerents, and this required a large number of American ships. These being built of timber procured from our abundant forests, brought large returns to the laborer. The trees that were felled and converted into ship-timber cost nothing, or but a trifle ; so that the whole value of the timber consisted of wages only, and the cost of transporta- tion to the sea-port. As this distance was short, nearly the whole was wages. NOTK." Professor McCay is one of the most able writers of the South ; is not a jjolitician, so far as we know, »nd has produced a very instructive and valuable Article, it being written before the war, will ever renriain one of the most irrtnartiiil and faithful descriptions of the f'otto'i interest, and exposition of the views of the people of the South, on the system of labor under which the great staple waa cultivated, to be found ou record. We tbiak it will bo perused with much interest by the general xetkdet.— Publisher. 104 COTTON CULTURE, Thus, even to the war of 1812, our rich, cheap lands were the source of our pros- perity, and the explanation proposed by Dr. Smith for the high rate of wages and of in- terest prevailing here was still satisfactory. But when peace was restored, in 1815, and the immense armies of the different states of Europe were returned to their homes to become producers instead of consumers; when the several countries encouraged their own shipping and their own farmers by re- storing their usual prohibitions and restric- tions, the ^advantages we possessed before the war were very much lessened. Our country had by this time become more popu- lous. Lands along the sea-board had risen in price; the people had penetrated the inte- rior ; the distant transportation had become a heavy burden to the producer ; and thus, at the very same time that the European de- mand was lessened, and the price depressed, our ability to supply the demand with profit was decreased. The money value of our products was diminished, and the laborer's share- in this value was at the same time less- ened. The usefulness of our cheap lands was decreased, and their advantages were less and less experienced. If we come down to recent times, our ad- vantages have not improved. Our country has become larger. The region of cheap land is beyond the AUeghanies. We must take a journey of a thousand miles from New York, crossing the Ohio and the Wabash, passing Indiana and Illinois, before we reach the country of cheap lands. The grain that is brought down the Hudson from Albany has been carried more than three hundred miles, in the Erie canal, from Buffalo, and more than a thousand, by vessels on the lakes, from Chicago, and thither from the interior of Illinois by railroad. There the land on which it was produced is worth ten, twenty, fifty dollars per acre. Now, however cheap the transportation by railroad and on the lakes, the canal, and the river, the freight must be a large per-centage of the sales at New York. The rent of land in Illinois is also to be deducted, leaving but a small bal- ance to be finally paid the laborer who has produced it. We must go hundreds of miles further to reach the region of cheap land, and then the increased cost of transportation will neutralize the advantage of procuring land at a dollar and a quarter per acre. Now, will the cheap lands of Iowa, and Wisconsin, and Nebraska, explain our high rates of wages ? In colonial times the prod- uct was maide along the Atlantic, and nearly the whole price at Philadelphia went to the laborer. Now, a large per-centage must be deducted for the two thousand miles' carriage by land, lake, canal, and river, and the la- borer's share is small. The truth is, the pioneer is poorly paid ; he is struggling hard for a mere pittance. His receipts are small, and he can give but a small price for the hireling he employs to assist him on his farm. He is no longer the cause of high wages through the whole breadth of the land. His influence and empire have ceased. Besides, our country has increased in population so largely, that the foreign de- mand for flour and other products of our lands will not pay for a tithe of our neces- sary wants, which must be supplied from abroad. Our people have increased in wealth, and their wants for wines, and silks, and other luxuries, cannot be paid for by the export of flour and grain, and the products of our for- ests. If, besides agricultural productions, we are forced to export manufactures to pay for our foreign supplies, the price of labor, which is the main element in the cost of manufactures, must at once fall to the Euro- pean standard. K, then, we had cheap lands even on the Atlantic, we could not pay for our present large supplies of foreign goods, so that these could not maintain our high rates for wages and interest ; much less are they able to do it when they are thousands of miles from the coast. A reference to the history of our foreign conmierce will illustrate the principles we have been referring to. When our general government was first formed, our population was less than four millions ; of these ninety- five per cent, were along the Atlantic slope, their average distance from the coast being less than a hundred miles. Our average do- mestic exports for the five years from 1790 to 1794, were less than twenty-two millions of dollars. Of these, flour alone averaged more than 800,000 barrels, and wheat more than 1,200,000 bushels; making a value of more than six millions of dollars. Other products of the farm and the forest made up nearly the whole of the balance. Now when lands were cheap, and near to the seaports ; when the forests bordering on the coast were not yet thinned or cut down, the laborer had a rich and abundant harvest, and high wages could be maintained by our cheap lands. ABUNDANCE OF LAND ^WAGBS OF LABOR DEPENDENT ON COTTON AND GOLD. 105 Ten years later, our population had risen to five millions, of which ninety per cent, yet occupied the Atlantic slope. Our domestie exports had risen to forty millions for the five years after 1800 ; and of these, flour alone amounted to eight millions and a half, its average price being $8.40, and the number •of barrels exceeding a million. The demand for our agricultural products was now large and the price high; so that the imports could yet be paid for by the products of our lands and our forests. These were still near the coast, and nearly all their proceeds be- longed to the labor that produced them. In 1810 our population had increased to 7,000,000, of which 80 per cent, were on this side of the AUeghanies. For the next two years which preceded the war, our ex- ports of domestic produce reached $43,- 000,000, of which flour constituted one- fourth, the number of barrels exceeding 1,1 00,000, and the average price being $9.66. Other products of our lands, yet cheap and near the coast, made up a large portion of the means we used to pay for our foreign supplies, and up to this time it may be justly said that high wages were sustained by the abundance of our fertile lands. But what a change in 1820. The people had increased to 10,000,000, 40 percent, of whom had their homes across the mountains. Our exports of domestic produce were over $50,000,000, and the whole demand for flour did not average, for the five years after 1820, 1,000,000 barrels, and that at only $5.68 per barrel. While the products of our lands had to be brought much further to market, the amount demanded for foreign countries, and the prices they gave for them, had declined. It was the same with the products of the forest. For the ten years after the war they were less than for the ten years before. The first were much nearer the sea, and for the last we gave more labor and received less money. The efficiency of cheap lands to pay for our . imports was gone, and their power to keep up prices de- parted also. If we come down to 1 8 50, our population had reached 23,000,000, of whom only 54 percent, were along the Atlantic. The centre of the ag- ricultural population had receded from the sea- board and crossed the mountains. The grain produced along the coast was all wanted at home. New England did not produce her own supplies. The city of New York contained a half million of people, who could not be fed by the surplus of the empire state. The coal and iron districts of Pennsylvania had become better markets for grain and flour than Philadelphia. Populous cities had risen in the west, and all these intercepted the supplies of food that were to be sent abroad for the purchase of our imports. The only flour that could be exported had to be carried from five to fifteen hundred miles. The foreign demand was no greater than it had been fifty years before, and our exports only reached 1,000,000 of barrels, while $163,000,000 were needed to pay for our imports. The other products of the west were small, and so were those of the forest. It is evident, therefore, that cheap lands could no longer furnish the supplies to pay for our imports, much less could they keep up the price of labor above the foreign standard. The advantages furnished by nature in the early history cf our country had ceased, and we were thrown on other resources, to keep up the prosperity and progress of our people. But this prosperity has not ceased. There has been no step backward in our career. The high prices of labor and of capital have been sustained, and the onward progress of our country, in power, wealth, and greatness, has never received the slight- est check. That labor is still higher than in Europe, ^ is abundantly evident. We import a large amount of cotton goods ; the importer pays the expenses of transportation across the sea, and a duty of 24 per cent, at the custom- house, and yet sells his goods at the same price with the American manufacturer who has bought his raw material at a lower price than the foreign producer. There is no ex- planation of this possible, except that labor and capital are higher in this country than in Europe. The iron ore of Pennsylvania is as good and abundant as in England ; fuel and limestone are as cheap, and as near to the beds of ore ; but the English iron is not only imported under heavy duties, but carried into the interior, and sold in the very neighborhood of the American furnaces. These two manufactures have long been favored by the protection of government. Under the device of specific duties and minimums, the tariff" for a while amoui^- ed to a prohibition on many of these goods. On all it was very large and bur- densome. The manufacturers have had time and opportunity to learn and introduce 106 COTTON CULTURE. all the improvements, and skill, and knowl- edge that would facilitate and cheapen their production ; they have had enterprise, and capital, and energy to manage and direct them ; and there is no possible explanation of the continued import of these articles to the amount of millions and tens of millions of dollars every year, unless labor and capi- tal were dearer here than in England. Perhaps a more striking proof that wages are higher here than in Europe may be found in the immense emigration into the United States from foreign countries. The principal motive of these /emigrants is to improve their condition. The Irish laborers who rejoiced in the old country at having meat once a week, are here able to place it on their tables three times a day ; to whet their appetites with as much whiskey as they may wish; to enjoy comforts and luxuries they never dreamed of abroad; and to send back to the parents, and brothers, and sisters they left behind, millions of dollars every year, that they also may come here and partici- pate in the same prosperity. The Germans bid adieu to their homes and fatherland that they love so well, and come over by tens of thousands to buy land, and build fine bams, and lay up treasures for old age or for their children ; while in their own country they would have been poor and humble peasants all their lives. This high price of wages is of the utmost importance. It is the source of our rapid increase in wealth and greatness, and the exact measure of our prosperity. It belongs not merely to the day laborer who works with his hands, but to the artisan who has skill, and to the man of talent who has brains. The superintendent and the master manufacturer, as well as the weaver, receive high wages ; the captain of the ship as well as the sailor ; the merchant as well as his porter ; and as industry, enterprise, and tal- ent earn higher rewards here than in any other country, the workman is inspired with new zeal, his aims and aspirations are raised, wealth accumulates with greater rapidity, and every thing that makes a coun- try prosperous and powerful is developed with a quicker growth. If, then, it is a fact that wages are higher here than in Europe ; if this is a fact of the utmost importance to the prosperity and greatness of our country, the question recurs. How is this high rate of wages sustained ? K not by cheap lands, what other advantage have we ? the gift of nature or our own arrangement, by which we are able to have an active commerce with all the world, and a free interchange of commodities with every country, and yet to sustain a higher price for labor and capital than the other nations with whom we trade ? The only way to keep up the rates of wages and of money higher than in Europe, is to produce some articles here that are in large demand abroad, for which we have peculiar advantages, so that we can make them cheaper than other countries, in spite of our high price for labor and our high interest for money. Such an article we have in cotton. It is of prime necessity, and in large demand abroad, because it furnishes the cheapest ma- terial for clothing, and for other purposes of civilized life ; it is produced here under such favorable circumstances that we can supply this demand at a fair profit to ourselves ; this profitable production being sustained by the favorable circumstances of our soil and cli' mate, and by the use of cheap labor in the midst of a country where labor is dear. The large demand for cotton in other coun- tries enables us to pay for the imports that we must have, and also for others that we ourselves might supply, were it not that our high rates for labor and capital permit the foreign producers to undersell us in our own market, after paying heavy duties at the sea- ports, and the cost of transportation across the Atlantic. It is easy to follow out the course of operations by which these eff'ects are pro- duced : the planter produces the cotton which is sold abroad, and buys the foreign supplies of the north, the south, and the west. The north carries the cotton to the foreign country, and brings back the returns. She delivers to the south her share, and pays for the balance in manufactures. After supplying herself, she buys food from the west with the remainder. The manufactures of Europe being loaded with the expenses of transport across the seas, and with duties paid to the general government, the northern manufacturer can keep the prices for his goods up to the im- porting limit, and these the south is able to pay, because of the profit on her great staple, and the monopoly she has of the European market. Thus are the high prices of labor sustain- ed, and the foreign supplies of the country CHAPMAN'S COTTON PRESS, Cotton, after reaching the shipping port, is re-bailed, being compressed into as small a compass as possible, in order to stow away to the best advantage in the hold of the ship. ABUNDANCE OF LAND WAGES OF LABOR DEPENDENT ON COTTON AND GOLD. 107 paid for by the export of cotton, whose cost of production does not depend on the high Eaid labor of the country, but on the cheap lb or of the negro slave. During the last ten years the gold of Cal- ifornia has had precisely the same effect, and its operations have been in every respect similar. The demand abroad for gold is of course unlimited ; the cheap and profitable production of it here depends on the abun- dant gifts of nature. The eastern manu- facturers sell their high-priced products to the miners, who are prevented from obtain- ing them cheaper by the distance from Europe, and the duties of the custom-house, and are able to pay for them by the abundant rewards they receive from their own labor. In this case nature, without any aid, makes the production profitable ; in the other nature is aided by the domestic institutions of the south. But the effects are in both cases identical. These two articles are assisted by rice and tobacco, which are in almost every respect similar to cotton. The demand abroad is not so great, and our advantages in their cultivation over the other producers for the European market are not so marked and de- cided. They are, however, real, and they may properly be regarded as aids to cotton and gold in producing the effect. The propriety and correctness of this ex- planation of our high prices is not affected by the fact that we also export some manu- factures. This is done in spite of their high prices, because they are carried, not to Eng- land and France, but to Mexico, South America, and the West Indies, where our proximity and trade give us some advantages over the European manufacturer. A few cotton goods are carried to China ; these are coarse, so that the superior cheapness of the raw material here partly compensates for the superior cost of manufacturing. This ad- vantage is aided by the influence of fashion, habit, and accident ; by the superior adapted- ness of our goods to their wants at the com- mencement of the export, and the good will and good name that were then secured ; and by various other inducements which often lead to the purchase of higher-priced com- modities even in a free and open market. Some few manufactures are even carried to England, France, and Germany, on ac- count of the temporary superiority of our workmen, or of new improvements in the mode of manufacture not yet introduced abroad, or of new inventions, or discoveries, or patents. The whole amount of these being small, and due to real advantages we have here, or to accident, or fashion, or taste, or prejudice, do not form any objection to the explanation we have proposed, that high prices are maintained in our country chiefly by cotton. So also with agricultural products ; we ex-« port some of these to the markets on our own continent, where we have many advan- tages over the European producer. In some of these, as in the flour to Brazil, these are very considerable. Our import of coffee is large, and our exports in return are very small, and consequently freights are low. We produce a kind of wheat in our southern climate manufactured into flour, which will not readily sour in the voyage across the equator. ' These two reasons secure a large demand for the brand of southern mills. And there are many other circumstances that induce a few shipments without refer- ence to price, so that even the small influence of our agricultural exports in sustaining prices is not due entirely to cheap lands, but to position, accident, advantages of climate, and other things of this kind. If we refer to our commercial statistics, it will be seen how small a ratio our manufac- tures and the products of our cheap lands bear to the whole exports. In 1850 the cotton, rice, and tobacco exported were worth eighty-five millions of dollars, and formed sixty-three per cent, of the whole value; the flour, grain, cheese, butter, lard, tallow, beef, pork, naval stores, and many other animal and agricultural products were less than twenty-four millions, and constitut- ed only eighteen per cent, of the domestic exports; while the manufactures of every kind, including those of cotton, were only fifteen millions, forming but eleven per cent, of the exports. For 1859, the year on which the eighth census (1860) returns are based, the value of cotton, rice, tobacco, and gold, was $245,000,000, or 73 per cent, of the whole ; all the products of animals and of the field, forty-two millions, or thirteen per cent, of all ; and manufactures of every kind (in- cluding eight millions of cotton goods) thirty millions of dollars, or nine per cent, of the whole exports. Of cotton alone the exports were $161,000,000. We repeat, then, that it is cotton almost entirely that keeps up the price of labor and capital in this country above the rates 108 COTTON CULTURE. of every other part of the world : that it is aided in this by the gold of California and the rice and tobacco of the Southern states, and, to a very small and insignificant extent, by our cheap lands and abundant forests ; that cotton brings about this result because it is in large demand in foreign coun- tries, being the cheapest article of clothing ; because our planters produce it in large amounts, and at great profit to themselves ; and because we have almost a monopoly of the foreign market, on account of our ability to produce a cheaper and better article than any other country in either of the four quar- ters of the globe. This cheapness is secured by the advantage of our soil and climate, and by the aid of cheap labor, which does not come into competition with the other labor of the country so as to depress the general standard of wages. To establish the first of these propositions, we have only to refer to the history of the cotton manufacture of Europe and America, and especially of England, as found in an- other chapter. CHAPTER II. PRODUCTION AND PRICES OF COTTON. Cotton has been employed as a material for clothing from the earliest times, and at the beginning of the eighteenth century nearly two millions of pounds were imported into England to supply their spinning wheels and looms, and to be used for the other pur- poses to which it was applied. In 1751 the imports rose to 2,976,610 pounds, in 1764 they were 3,870,392 pounds, and in 1781 they had increased to 5,198,778. At this period they took a sudden rise, and in the next five years increased to nineteen millions, and in the next five to twenty-nine millions of pounds, thus making a more rapid progress in five years than in the preceding hun- dred. The cause of this rapid advance was the introduction of machinery for the spinning of cotton. This reduced the price and in- creased the demand, and led to the exclu- sion of Knen, silk, and wool, and the substi- tution of cotton in their place. As early as 1738 Wyatt had taken out a patent for the spinning of cotton by machin- ery. He was assisted by Paul, who after- ward took out a patent for carding the cot- ton by machinery. But so complex and imperfect were the details of this machinery of Wyatt and Paul that these projects failed. The "principle was discovered, but important practical improvements were wanting before it could be made successful. In 1769, Arkwright took out a patent for his water-frame and throstle, and in 1770, Hargreaves invented his spinning-jenny, both of which were on the same principle as Wyatt's machine, but led to a very differ- ent result. Between 1770 and 1780 these machines were fairly tested, and in the next ten years they were rapidly introduced. The patent of Arkwright was broken down in the courts of law in 1785, by the perse- vering opposition of those who had wrong- fully appropriated his discoveries ; and the expiration of the other patents in a short time opened the whole manufacture to the free use of the people. In 1 800 the imports of cotton had risen to fifty-six millions, an increase of eleven fold in twenty years. In the first eighty years of the eighteenth cen- tury the increase had been one hundred and fifty per cent. ; in the last twenty years it had been a thousand. These improvements of Arkwright and Hargreaves were not the end and perfection of the inventions for spinning. These ma- chines were not adapted for the finer num- bers, and in 1779 Samuel Crompton invent- ed the mule, which combined the excellen- ces of the two former inventions. No pat- ent was taken out for it, and it was worked for a while in secret. But the high prices Crompton obtained for his yarn soon attract- ed such attention that he could no longer keep it concealed. For number forty, he received three dollars and a half a pound ; and for number sixty, six dollars. These prices were commanded by the superiority of his yarn, and the mule was, therefore, a great improvement on the old machines. At first the invention was quite imperfect, but it was soon improved and brought nearly to its present perfection. In the course of ten years it was everywhere intro- duced. Under its influence the demand for labor rapidly increased. The next important invention was the power-loom, first proposed and patented by Cartwright. The patent was issued in 1787, but all efforts failed to introduce it success- fully until after the beginning of the present century. The improvements in dressing the warp, which were indispensable to the sue- PRODUCTION AND PRICES OF COTTON. 109 cess of the power-loom, were made in 1803. In 1813 there were twenty-four hundred of these in use in England. In 1820 these had increased to fifty-five thousand, and in 1833 to a hundred thousand. The steam engine of Watt was not less important to the manufacture of cotton than these improvements in spinning and weav- ing. The water power of England was lim- ited, irregular, and entirely insuflScient for the numerous machines that were soon in- troduced, and the new motive power was especially adapted to their work. Being cheap on account of the abundance of coal, regular in its operations so as to give a uni- form stroke to the loom, not liable to in- terruptions and strikes as human labor had been, it has contributed very much to the progress of the cotton manufacture. Watt's first patent was taken out in 1769, but it was not until 1785 that steam was applied to the driving of a cotton mill. In 1800 there were thirty engines employed at Man- chester, and in 1859 the number in the whole kingdom had risen to twenty-two hundred. Under the influence of these improve- ments, the progress in the manufacture of cotton has been of the most rapid descrip- tion. It was under the influence of those great inventions that the importations of cotton rose in twenty years — from 1781 to 1801 — from five to fifty-six millions of pounds, and the English exports of cottons from two mill- ions of dollars to twenty-seven millions. In all this time the price of the raw material rather advanced than decreased. Accord- ing to Tooke's "History of Prices," the range for difierent qualities of West India and Surinam from 1780 to 1785 was from 13 pence per pound to 40 ; while from 1795 to 1800 it was from 15 to 55 pence. But the cost of yarns was vjery diff"erent. In 1786 and 1787 the price of No. 100 was nine and a half dollars a pound; in 1790, seven and a half dollars; in 1795, four dol- lars and three quarters; and in 1800, two dollars and thirty-five cents. We thus see that the effect of the intro- duction of machinery was to give an im- mense increase to the consumption of cot- ton, a large reduction in the price of cotton goods, and a substitution of cotton for wool, silk, and flax, and an increase in the demand for labor. The improvements which were made after 1800 were not less important than those which preceded it. The importations into England increased from 1800 to 1810 more than a hundred per cent., being from fifty- six to one hundred and thirty-two millions of pounds. The American war interrupted the progress in the next decade, but in 1820 it had risen to one hundred and fifty-two millions. For the next ten years the rate of progress was nearly a hundred per cent., the amount in 1830 being two hundred and sixty-four millions. In 1840 the amount was five hundred and seventeen millions, the increase being nearly a hundred per cent. In 1850 the imports were six hun- dred and sixty-nine millions ; and in 1859 they were eleven hundred and eighty-one millions. In 1860 the amount received from the United States alone reached the enormous sum of eleven hundred millions, to which the East Indies have made an addi- tion of two hundred more, and other coun- tries nearly a hundred^ making a total of fourteen hundred millions of pounds. This increase since 1780, when machinery was first successfully applied to the spinning of cotton, has been two hundred and eighty fold. Since 1800 the increase has been twenty-five times ; since 1820 twelve times;, and since 1840, three times. During the year 1858 the value of England's manufac- tured cottons was four hundred and thirty millions, and in 1859 four hundred and eighty millions of dollars. At the same time the manufacture has been growing rapidly in every other country. The abundance of coal in England, the cheap- ness of iron and machinery, and the low rate of interest on capital, as well as the enter- prise, industry, and skill of her people, have placed her before other countries ; but their progress has been rapid, and their demand for cotton large and increasing. From 1820 to 1840 the French imports of cotton rose from forty- four to one hundred and four millions of pounds, and in 1855 to one hundred and sixty-eight millions. And the recent abolition of the duty on raw cottons has made the increase still more rapid. In some other countries of Europe, the progress has been greater than in France. The- comparative magnitude of the manufactures* of other countries than England may be seen by our exports in 1860. To England, we sent 2,669,000 bales ; to France, 589,000 ; and to the rest of Europe, 515,000. The average of 1839 and 1840, when compared: no COTTON CULTURE. with the average of 1859 and 1860, is as fol- lows:— 1859-60. Increase Bales. per cent 2,344,000 130 1,069,000 136 953,000 154 Bales. Great Britain 1,022,000 The Continent 453,000 The United States. 336,000 140 Total 1,811,000 4,366,000 As England exports much of the cotton she receives, and all obtain more or less from other countries than the United States, the comparative importance of other coun- tries will be best seen by the consumption of all kinds of cotton. The weekly consump- tion for the years 1855 and 1856 was as fol- lows : — 1855. 1856. Bales. Bales. Great Britain 37,384 43,518 On the Continent 26,554 27,524 The United States... 14,822 15,768 In the United States, the increase in the consumptiDn has been more rapid than in any other country : — Average from 1826 to 1830, 127,000 bales. •" 1831 " 1835, 195,000 " « 1836 " 1840, 275,000 " " 1841 " 1845, 363,000 " " 1846 " 1850, 539,000 " •' 1851 " 1855, 686,000 " » 1856 " 1860, 818,000 " This large increase in the manufacture of cotton has been accompanied with a decline in the cost of the raw material, and a still greater decline in the cost of manufactured goods. The price of American cotton, from 1800 to 1820, averaged twenty-two cents per pound; from 1820 to 1840, thirteen cents; and from 1840 to 1860, only ten cents. In the same time the improvements in machin- ery, and in the art of manufacturing, and in the skill of the workmen, have reduced the price of yams, and prints, and muslins, and every product of the loom in a much greater ratio. For number 100, the price of yarn in 1786 was nine dollars and a half; in 1796, four dollars and three quarters; in 1806, one dollar and seventy-two cents; in 1812, one dollar and twenty-seven cents; in 1830, eighty cents ; and in 1854, fifty-eight cents. In the lower numbers the decrease has been nearly as large. In all kinds of cotton goods the decrease in price is made manifest by the change in the official and declared values of the exports of Great Britain. The offi- cial is a fixed nominal price for every article exported, and the declared is the real value. The former may therefore be regarded as representing quantities, and the latter values. Now the official and declared values, of all kinds of goods for 1814 were $88,000,000 and $100,000,000 1824 " 151,000,000 " 92,000,000 1833 " 232,000,000 " 92,000,000 1840 " 366,000,000 " 123,000,000. 1850 " 569,000,000 " 141,000,000 1858 " 846,000,000 " 214,000,000 These numbers show that while the amount has increased nearly tenfold, the value has only doubled, and that therefore the goods are five times cheaper now than in 1814. We have now followed the cotton manu- facture from its rise, a century since, down to the year 1860. Its immense magnitude in every country of Europe, its rapid prog- ress, its exclusion of other materials for cloth- ing, and the great decrease in the price of manufactured goods, are established facts which show how large and how intense is the foreign demand for our cotton* This is the first proposition we proposed to consider in our explanation of the high prices of labor and capital in our country, and we now pass on to the second, that the production of cot- ton is very profitable to the American planters. In proof of this, we shall show that the cultivation of cotton has attracted labor and capital from other pursuits in the cotton states, until it has concentrated almost their whole productive power upon this single ar- ticle ; that it has drawn wealth and labor from other sections of the country to be de- voted to it, when other employments were inviting their attention ; and that these and other facts demonstrate the profitableness of this culture. The cotton plant of Europe is a native of India, whence it spread very slowly into China and Persia, Africa and Europe. But cotton is a native of this continent, and was diff'used here everywhere before the arrival of the Europeans. It was found by Colum- bus in Cuba, on his first voyage, in 1492, and by Cortes in Mexico, and Magellan in Brazil, on their first visit to those countries in 1519. Pizarro saw it in Peru in 1532, and Cabega de Vaca in California in 1536. In both divisions of the continent it had spread as far north and as far south as the climate would permit. All the three kinds of cotton were growing here : the herbaceous, or annual ; the shrub, which lives three or four years ; and the tree, which lasts for PRODUCTION AND PRICES OF COTTON. Ill twenty years. It is only the annual which is now cultivated in the IJnited States. Dur- ing our colonial history, it was introduced here from the West Indies and from the Mediterranean, and was extensively culti- vated in gardens and small patches for do- mestic use from New Jersey to Georgia. A few bags were exported before the Revolu- tion ; but so little was produced, that a ship- ment of eight bales from Charleston, in 1784, was seized by the custom-house authorities in England, on the ground that so large an amount could not have been grown in the United States. As it was cultivated to ad- vantage in the West Indies, near to our coast, many attempts were made to extend its culture here. Some seeds were brought from the Bahamas, and successfully culti- vated along the coast of South Carolina and Georgia, soon after the war of independence. This was carefully improved from year to year, by selecting the seed of the finest plants, by the application of the most suit- able manures, and by choosing the best lo- calities for its cultivation, until the fine, silky variety, known as the sea island cotton, was naturalized in our country, and brought to the greatest perfection of staple. The seed is easily separated from the lint by passing it between rollers, which push back the seed and permit the cotton to pass through. This is a tedious work, but the length and fine- ness of the fibre secured so high a price for the product, that the cultivation has con- tinued profitable from its first introduction to the present time. It is mixed with the b<38t wool or with silk, or is used by itself for the manufacture of the finest fabrics, and commands a very high price in the market, two, three, or four times more than the short staple cotton. Our country has a monopoly of it; for neither in Egypt, Pernambuco, or the Isle of Bourbon, where the best cottons are grown, can they produce a staple of the same length and fineness. Sometimes a dollar a pound is paid for it ; and even higher prices have been offered for favorite crops. The cultivation of this variety is limited to the islands along the coast and a narrow belt near the sea, though in Florida it may be grown in any part of the peninsula. When planted in the uplands it degenerates quickly and is less productive. The whole value of this crop is now from eight to ten mill- ions of dollars, and varies but little from year to year. From 1857 to 1860 inclusive, the crop has averaged 47,000 bales, and for three years preceding, 43,000 bales. The variety of cotton that is planted in the interior is the native Mexican species. It adheres closely to the seed, and cannot be separated by the common roller gin. When first cul- tivated it was separated by hand, but this operation was slow and tedious, and limited the cultivation for the purposes of com- merce. In 1791 the whole exports of the United States of all kinds of cotton were only 189,316 pounds — which is less than the product of many of our single planta- tions at the present time. In 1792 it was four hundred and nineteen bags, weighing 138,328 pounds; and in 1793 it was 487,- 600 pounds. At this period it took a sud- den start upward, and rose in 1794 to 1,601,- 000, and in 1795 to more than six millions of pounds. The cause of this sudden increase was the invention, by Whitney, of the saw gin- This ingenious gentleman was a native of Massachusetts, and had come to Georgia as a private tutor in 1792. While residing as a guest in the family of Mrs. General Greene, near Savannah, he was informed by some of her visitors from the upper country, where the short-staple cotton was cultivated, of the great desirableness of a machine for separat- ing the cotton from the seed. To his in- ventive turn of mind, this suggestion was enough to attract his attention. He obtained some of the seed cotton from Savannah, and soon devised the saw gin. At first he used bent wires or teeth, like those of the com- mon card, but much larger and stronger, and these were placed in rows on a revolv- ing cylinder. The cotton was separated from this cylinder by a frame of parallel wires. As the cylinder revolved, the teeth extending through the wire frame caught the cotton and drew it through the grating, but the seeds being too large to pass be- tween the wires, were separated from the lint. The teeth being found too weak to pull the cotton from the seed without being bent or broken, he substituted a circular saw in their place. The teeth of the saws being large, and shaped like the beak of a bird, had more strength and were equally efficient. Behind the saw-cylinder,brushes were arranged to remove the cotton from the saws, and thus the object was accom- plished. When he had completed his gin, entirely by the labor of his own hands, he invited some farmers to see it tried, and all were satisfied with its work. It differed es- PRODUCTION AND PRICES OF COTTON. 113 Bentially from the roller gin introduced from the Bahamas, and invented there by Joseph Eve, the son of a Pennsylvania loyalist, and afterward a resident of Georgia. The roller gin had also teeth and a wire frame, and the revolving teeth caught the cotton through the wire frame, but they only delivered it to the rollers which separated the cotton from the seed. In the saw gin the teeth and the wire did the work of separation. Though Eve's was like Whitney's, and may have suggested it, they were on different principles. The one was suited for the sea island, and the other for the upland. Before Whitney could take out his patent, many of his gins were constructed by the farmers and put to work. His patent was issued in 1793, and having obtained the co- operation of Miller, who furnished the capi- tal, they undertook the manufacture of the gins for sale, and the ginning of cotton by the pound for the planters, and the purchase of the seed cotton, that they might clean it themselves. Although these plans required large capital, Whitney was poor, and Miller had but small means when this project was undertaken. In 1794, when they were pre- paring several machines for sale, Whitney was taken sick, and his workmen were pros- trated by the fevers of the climate. These difficulties prevented the construction of many gins by the patentees; and as the want of them was great, and the machinery very simple, many were built by common mechanics, and thus extensively introduced. In 1795 Wliitney's shop and all his machines were destroyed by fire, and this was another hindrance to the sale of the patented gin, and another incentive to those who were tres- passing on his rights. To put a stop to these infringements of their patent, suits were instituted by Miller and Whitney. But the patent law had just been passed by Congress, and the general government was little known or respected. The juries were composed of men who were all interested in breaking the patent. The gin makers had strong interests prompting them to resist the suits. Witnesses were found who testi- fied that they had seen the gin in Europe, where it was used for making lint ! The suits were postponed and delayed by the in- genuity of lawyers, and as the United States courts only met at long intervals, these delays were the more serious. Under these difficulties, the patentees often failed in their suits, or obtained but small damages, or were engaged in long, vexatious, and expen- sive litigation, so that the courts became an expense to them instead of a protection. The gins were everywhere introduced, with or without the patent-right. This was the case both in Georgia and South Carolina ; but the delay and failure of the suits in Georgia induced the patentees to propose to the legislature of South Carolina to sell the right for that state for $100,000. An offer of $50,000 was made them and accepted, and this was nearly all that was ever re- ceived by the inventors. Whitney, unlike Arkwright, only received barren honors for his great invention ; for even the purchase money of South Carolina was expended in the prosecution of the suits he had insti- tuted against the trespassers on his rights. The introduction of Whitney's gin acted like magic on the planting of cotton. In eight years, from 1792 to 1800, the exports of the United States increased more than a hundred-fold. The value rose from $30,000 to $3,000,000, and the amount from 138,000 lbs. to 18,000,000. The whole of this was wanted in England, and the rapid increase in the demand there that followed the general introdilction of Arkwright's inventions pre- vented any decline in price. The population of South Carolina and Georgia, where all of this cotton was raised, was only 507,000 in 1800; so that the amount was $6 to each individual, including the young and the old. This was not enough to purchase the manu- factures and the foreign supplies they needed ; rice and tobacco being both added to cotton in the exports of Charleston and Savannah. Those of rice alone were larger than cotton, and the production of tobacco was considera- ble. The immigrants from Virginia and North Carolina brought this cultivation with them, and it formed a large part of the trade at the sea-port towns at this early period. But it was soon to disappear, under the progress of cotton. In the next ten years, from 1801 to 1810, the production increased more than five- fold, from 1 8,000,000 to 93,000,000 of pounds andthe value from $3,000,000 to $15,000,000. As the population had only increased 30 per cent, in these ten years, and as the exports of rice had risen from 94,000 to 119,000 tierces, the great change was in the transfer of labor from tobacco to cotton. The ex- ports of cotton and rice in 1810 were more than $30 to each person, white and black, young and old, male and female ; an amount which sufficiently indicates that nearly the 114 COTTON CULTURE. whole available labor was devoted to these two staples. In the next decade the cultivation was in- terrupted by the war of 1812, and the ex- ports only rose to 128,000,000 in 1820. But the high prices that followed the war stimu- lated the production to the utmost possible limit. Tobacco was no longer cultivated as an article of export. Rice was still planted in the swamp lands along the coast, because they were not well suited for cotton and be- cause rice was itself a very profitable crop. Emigrants flocked from Virginia to engage in the culture of cotton; new lands were purchased from the Indians ; more laborers were brought from Virginia to work in the cotton fields ; and every hand that could be spared from other employments, white or colored, was appropriated to this one culture. In consequence of this transfer of labor, the exports rose in the next decade, from 1820 to 1830, more than 100 per cent., from 12 8,000,- 000 to 298,000,000 pounds. For the next ten years the impulse to the cultivation of cotton was greater than ever. It was impossible for the cotton states to transfer any more of their labor to the cul- ture. Some of their population was needed in the towns and cities to attend to the sale and shipment of their cotton, some to provide supplies for the planters, and a few were en- gaged in those mechanical pursuits which are absolutely indispensable, even in an agri- cultural country receiving its manufactures from distant places; but all the rest were engaged in the production of cotton. The planter raised enough corn to feed his stock, and provide bread for his family ; he sup- plied generally his own meat, but for the most part his flour was brought from the north or west, and the towns were supplied with pork and flour from the same source. All his labor was appropriated to cotton, because it was more profitable than any other crop. All his profits from year to year were devoted to buying more negroes, that he might enlarge his cultivation of the one great staple of the south. The emigrants from Virginia, and North Carolina, and Tennessee, though at their first arrival they might pre- fer to plant tobacco or wheat, soon transferred all their hands to cotton. The lawyer, and the doctor, and the school-master, as soon as they earned any money, bought land and negroes, and became planters. The preacher who married an heiress or a rich widow, be- came the owner of a plantation. The merchant who wished to retire from the per- plexities of business, and take his ease in the country, passed his old age in watching the ' cotton plant spring up from the fresh-ploughed ground, spread its leaves to the gentle show- ers of spring, stretch its long branches to the summer's sun, open its red blossoms, to be fol- lowed by the abundant fruit which showed their white treasures to the autumn sky, gladdening his heart with the abundant re- wards of his labor. All the labor, all the capital, all the increase of population and wealth by immigration from more northern climates, all the accumulations of every trade, or business, or pursuit were devoted to this one cultivation ; and though it had seemed impossible in 1830 to increase the cultivation to any considerable degree, the production rose in 1840 to 744,000,000 pounds, or six times the product of 1820. During the next decade this favorite cul- ture received a slight check. The incre^e in the demand, though outrunning every other business, had been overtaken by the still more rapid increase in the supply. Prices declined, and the capital of the country had an opportunity to look around for other employments. It readily found them in the construction of railroads, the erection of cotton factories for coarse goods, the production of the corn, and meat, and flour for the towns and cities, the cul- tivation of the sugar cane, and in those other mechanical and manufacturing pursuits which are the first enterprises of an agricultural people. The south had other employments to which she might have turned her attention with advantage. She had fine shipping timber, and in great abundance, but she did not increase her shipping, because high as wages and interest are at the north, they are still higher at the south, and the competition between the two sections is so easy in ship- ping, that she could not engage in shipping even her own products, as long as other more profitable pursuits keep up the rate of labor and capital to their present high limits. The low prices of cotton from 1840 to 1850 did not, therefore, divert capital to shipping. The tonnage of Charleston averaged 50,000 tons from 1800 to 1810, nearly 40,000 from 1810 to 1820; 22,000 from 1832 to 1840, and 23,000 from 1840 to 1848. The culture of rice was susceptible of very slight increase, because the only land suit- able for its cultivation is the low, swampy Eupai^ H.B-.HalL.M Y GATHERTKG STATISTICS AMONG THE COTTON PLANTATIONS PRODUCTION AND PRICES OF COTTON. 115 district along the sea, where the crop can be covered with water. From early times this valuable grain had been raised in all favorable localities, and, though a very profitable crop, no increase was practicable. From 1789 to 1798 the exports of the United States averaged 107,000 tierces; from 1799 to 1808 they were 82,000; and from 1809 to 1818 the average was 87,000. From 1820 to 1829 the whole crop, including the shipments to the north and the exports, averaged 120,- 000 tierces; from 1830 to 1839 they were 148,000; and from 1840 to 1848 the average was 162,000. These figures show little or no transfer of capital to this production, and the reason is that the lands suited to its cul- tivation are limited. For the year 1858 they were 173,000 tierces, showing the same steady, unchangeable condition of this culture down to the present time. But although the cultivation of rice could not be increased, and the northern shipping was too easy a competitor with the southern, there were many employments in which the south could engage, before she would reduce the wages and profits down to the northern standard. Tanneries, forges, foundries, the making of shoes, buckets, hardware, furni- ture, clothing, machinery, and every manu- facture where the bulk or the weight is con- siderable, can be profitably pursued. The negroes make good carpenters, shoemakers, tanners, workers in iron, and there is no em- ployment pursued at the north to which their labor cannot be profitably devoted. Of all these employments thus attracting ker attention, the principal of those which she selected in the depression of 1840 were the construction of railroads, the culture of wheat, the manufacture of coarse cottons, and the planting of the sugar cane. These railroads have nearly all been profit- able. It may seem strange to those who have only heard of Harlem, and Erie, and New Haven, and Hudson River railroads, to be told that every railway of the cotton states has been profitable. The country is sparsely settled, and it cannot be from pas- sengers. They have but little through freight to Tennessee and North Carolina, and it cannot be from the transit of goods. Their only product is cotton, and it is this that pays. Not only does the great staple enrich those who make it, but all who handle it and carry it. It is like the fabled Midas, and turns all things into gold. Wheat, also, has been a profitable culture, because it is mainly consumed at home, and the price is usually the cost of flour in New York added to the cost of transportation. Even when fine seasons and a large crop en- able the farmer to export some of his flour, the early harvest permits him to send it to New York before the new wheat of the north and west can be off'ered in the market, and thus secure to himself a high price. The cotton factories have, also, usually been profitable. All that have been managed skil- fully and faithfully have paid good dividends, and several have made fortunes for their owners. The oldest mill in the southern states, near Athens, Georgia, has been profit- able from the start, more than thirty years since. Those at Graniteville and Roswell, favored with water power and wise manage- ment, have paid large and regular dividends. The one at Macon, though driven by steam, has been alike successful. Many of the others have done well, though the machinery has to be brought from the north, and the expense of labor and superintendence is high. A few have failed from frauds and dishonesty in the projectors or managers, some from carelessness and neglect of their duties by those to whom they were entrust- ed, and some from ignorance and impru- dence. But always when well managed they have succeeded. They make the coarse os- naburgs and heavy shirting for the negroes, and the coarser numbers of yarn for the country looms of the planters. Many of them send their yams to Philadelphia and New York, and dispose in this way of their surplus production. A few are working on finer unbleached cloth, and they are also doing well. So, also, has some capital been devoted to sugar. The beautiful lands along the lower Mississippi have been appropriated to this crop. Under the protection of the tariffs of 1824 and 1828 the culture was started, and from 1835 to 1840 the production averaged seventy millions of pounds, worth over four millions of dollars. The low prices of cotton about this time encouraged the producers, and the amount for the next five years averaged one hundred and twenty-five millions of pounds, worth six millions of dollars. In the next five years the product rose to two hundred and eleven millions, valued at ten millions of dollars. From 1850 to 1865 the production still further increased, the amount being three hundred and forty-seven millions, and the value fifteen 116 COTTON CULTURE. millions. In the last five years — partly from the disastrous season of 1856, which not only ruined the crop for that year, but de- stroyed the plants for the next, and partly to the high price of cotton, which has diverted some of the lands to this culture — the average has only been two hundred and sixty-three millions; but the value of this decreased crop has been higher than ever, having reached seventeen millions of dollars. To these and a few other new enterprises, the accumulating labor and capital of the cotton states have been diverted since the disastrous fall of prices in 1837. But the culture of cotton still went on, and with giant strides, too. The planters were more economical at home, raised more com and bacon, so as to lessen their purchases from , the west and from North Carolina ; but, as the price of lands and negroes declined, the inducements to raise cotton were nearly as great as before. The average exports for the five years from 1836 to 1840 were five hundred and twenty-four millions; for the next five, the average was six hundred and eighty-eight millions ; and for the next five, seven hundred and eleven millions. Here was an average increase much faster than the natural increase of the population, show- ing that, in spite of the diversion of labor and capital to new pursuits, emigrants were still arriving from North Carolina and Vir- ginia, and transfers were still being made from the tobacco and wheat fields of Virginia to the cotton lands of the south. After 1850 prices improved, and in the next five years the average exports rose to one billion and twenty-five millions of pounds, making an increase in the average produc- tion of nearly fifty per cent, in five years. For the five succeeding years the exports have not been completed at the treasury de- partment, and the number of bales may be taken to measure the increase of production. From 1850 to 1855 the average crop was 2,882,000 bales, and from 1855 to 1860 it was 3,628,000, an increase which is twice as great as the natural increase of the popu- lation, indicating the continuance of the transfers of laborers to the cotton planta- tions. And never before was the planting more profitable than in these last few years. The price was not, indeed, so high as in 1819, or 1825, or 1836, when the planters were almost bewildered at the rates offered them for their crops ; but by improved methods of cultivation, and greater facilities of reach- ing the market, their real earnings were much greater than ever. Higher prices were given for land and for negroes than even in 1836. The wages of hired servants were larger than ever before; and the planters throughout the south were rich, prosperous, and happy. The immigration into the cotton states, and the purchase of negroes from Missouri, Kentucky, and Virginia were made manifest by the changes of population. The natural increase of the people of the whole country is less than thirty per cent, for ten years, after deducting the emigrants from Europe and the inhabitants of our purchased territo- ries. Before 1820 it exceeded a little this ratio; but from 1830 to 1840 it was less, and from 1840 to 1850 not over twenty -five per cent. But the population of the eight cotton states, from South Carolina to Texas, increased in the first decade of the present century fifty per cent., in the second decade fifty-five per cent., in the third fifty per cent., in the fourth fifty-one per cent., and in the fifth forty-one per cent. Thus, in all this period of fifty years, the real increase was very nearly double that of the natural ; or, more exactly, in every ten years twenty per cent, of the existing population was added from the more northern states. CHAPTER HI. MONOPOLY OF THE MARKET-SLAVE LABOR —COTTON EXCHANGED EOR MANUFAC- TURES. The history that has now been given of the great increase in the production of cot- ton ; of the entire devotion of the labor of the cotton states to this single culture, even to the neglect in some places of the com, flour, and meat necessary for the wants of their immediate neighborhood ; of the large increase of the population in these states ; of the increasing prices of land and negroes ; of the investment of nearly the whole of the annual accumulations of the people in enlarg- ing this one production, when others that are really profitable, for which they have advantages in soil, or in climate, or in posi- tion, are rejected — is an irresistible accumu- lation of proof of the second proposition that we proposed to consider : that the American planters are able to produce large amounts MONOPOLY SLAVE LABOR EXCHANGE FOR MANUFACTURES. 117 of cotton at great profit to themselves ; and we will pass now to the third proposition : that we have almost a monopoly of the for- eign market, on account of our ability to pro- duce a better and cheaper article than any other country in the world. We have already adverted to the superi- ority of our sea island variety. It is the best cotton in the Liverpool market, and com- mands the highest price. It has not been produced in larger quantities, because the localities where it can be cultivated are few. But for the amount we make there is no competition. The average value of our ex- , ports of this kind was $6,000,000 from 1805 to 1815, including the years of the war and the embargo; $10,000,000 in the next ten years ; $10,000,000 in the next; $7,000,000 in the next ; and $9,000,000 in the last, from ,1845 to 1855. For 1859 the amount was 13,713,000 pounds. It is evident from these figures, that the production of sea-island cot- ton is not increasing. When we began the production of cotton, the supplies of Great Britain were furnished by the Levant and by America. Of the twenty- three millions received in 1787, seven were from the West Indies, six from Turkey, and ten , from the Spanish, Dutch, and Portuguese col- onies of South America. None was received from the United States or Egypt, which are now the principal sources of supply. The first imports from the East Indies were in 1 7 9 8, and from Egypt in 1823. When the demand in- creased, by the application of machinery to the manufacture, we very soon assumed the first rank in the production and supply of cotton. By the year 1800 the receipts from our coun- try equalled those of any other, and in some ,of the years before the war of 1812 we sur- passed all other countries taken together. After the war of 1812 we immediately re- sumed the chief place as producers for the European market. In the five years from 1816 to 1820 the average weekly consump- tion in Great Britain of the different kinds of cotton was 3,800 bales of American, 2,200 from Brazil, 1,100 from the East Indies, and 700 from the West Indies ; and as our bags were the heaviest, the 3,800 American were more than the 4,000 from other coun- tries. In the next five years Egyptian made its appearance in the market, and the aver- age was 6,400 bales of American, 2,600 from Brazil, 200 from Egypt, 1,000 from India, and 600 from the West Indies. The decline of the West Indies, which was the only cot- ton similar to ours, had already begun, and from 1826 to 1830 the decline continued. The average consumption of American was 9,200 bales, 2,400 from Brazil, 700 from Egypt, 700 from India, and only 400 from the West Indies, so that ours was more than two-thirds of the whole. In the next five years the American rose to 13,000, the West Indian declined to 200, and the others had but a slight increase ; ours being three-fourths of the whole. From this time forward the United States supplied about eighty per cent, of the whole consumption of England, and also of the rest of Europe. In the last year (1859) the number of bales consumed in Great Britain and on the continent was 700,000, of which the American was eighty per cent., the West Indian one, the Brazilian three, the Egyptian four, and the East Indian twelve. And this ratio has been nearly the same for the last twenty years. The ratio of the supply from Egypt has increased a little faster than from America; while that from the West Indies has almost disappeared. Since the rise in the price of coffee, on ac- count of the stoppage of the slave trade in Brazil, her exports have been stationary or declining. The imports from the East Indies have increased, but their comparative gain on American has been very small. In the eight years from 1840 to 1847, the average importation into England of American cot- ton was 468,000,000 pounds, and of East Indian 75,000,000 ; while for the next eight years, from 1848 to 1855, the former averaged 644,000,000 and the latter 1 1 5,000,000. The first ratio was 16 and the last 18. Since 1855 the ratio has slightly increased. In 1859 and 1860 it slightly declined. The supplies furnished by the several countries are not, however, rivals of each other. Our sea island is the finest and dearest. The Egyptian and Brazilian are next, and are used for the finer fabrics. Ours is suited for all the common yarns, uniting strength of fibre with smoothness and length of staple. The Indian comes last in price, is coarse, short stapled, and badly cleaned. It is mixed with American in the factories, and used for the coarser goods. Thus there is little or no competition be- tween the different cottons. They are each used for their particular class of manufac- tures. The Indian would be of Httle use without ours to mix with it, so that an in- crease in the supply would require an in? lis COTTON CULTURE. crease of American to be worked with it. The dearness of the Egyptian and South American, which are about fifty per cent, higher than ours, prevents them from being substituted in its place. In a paper read before the Society of Arts, J. B. Smith, Esq., member for Stock- port, says: — " It will be seen, therefore, that while we •require for the purposes of our manufacture a limited quantity of the sea island and short-staple qualities of raw cotton, we need and can consume an almost unlimited supply of the medium-staple,orUnited States quality. In this fact lies our real difficulty ; for while several quarters of the world supply the first sort, and India could supply enormous xjuantities of the short-staple sort, the United States of America alone have hitherto pro- duced the second and most necessary kind" "The finest long cotton in the world is called the * sea island.' It is grown on the low-lying lands and small islands on the coast of Georgia. The quantity is small, and the price very high. It is used mostly for muslin thread, and the very finest num- bers of yam — say lOO's and upward; and price, in fact, is of little moment to the manufacturers who purchase it. It usually sells at about two shillings per pound. A quality much resembling it, and almost, if not quite as good, has been grown, as a sample article, in Australia. But of this de- nomination of cotton the consumption is very small. Another species — long, strong, fine, and yellowish — is grown in Egypt, and imported in considerable quantities. An in- ferior quality — coarse, harsh, bright in color, but strong — is imported from Brazil, and a very small quantity from the West Indies. Doubtless, if the price were adequate, and the demand here very great and steady, the supply from many of these quarters might be largely augmented. But it is not of this sort that we Ueed any considerable increase, nor could we afford the price which probably alone would remunerate the grower. " 2. Our great consumption and demand is for the soft, white, silky, moderately long cotton of America — the quality usually call- ed * uplands,' 'bowed Georgia,' and 'New Orleans.' This used to be sold at prices varying from 3d. to 6d. per pound (it is now from 6d. to 8d.). It can be consumed in any quantity; for it is available not only (or weft, but for warp, except for the finer numbers. We need and consume nine b^s of this cotton for one bag of all others put together. " 3. It is the insufficient supply, or the high- er price of this cotton, that has driven our manufacturers upon the short-stapled native article of India, commonly called Surat. If the price of the two were equal, scarcely a bag of Surat would be employed. When the price of American cotton rises, owing to an inadequate supply, that of East India cotton follows it at a considerable interval — the usual ratio being two to three — and the im- port of the latter is greatly stimulated. It is always grown iu India in large quantities, and, with improved means of communication and more careful preparation, might be sup- plied in time, in indefinite and probably ample quantities. But it is its quality that is in fault ; and, as far as the past is a guide, it would seem incurably in fault. Many at- tempts to amend the character of this cotton have been made. American planters and American ' saw gins ' have been sent over, and American seed has been planted ; and the result has been a sensible amelioration in cleanliness and color, and some slight in- crease in length of fibre, but scarcely any change in specific character. The dry, fuzzy, woolly characteristics remain. Sometimes the first year's samples nearly resemble the American article, but the resemblance never becomes permanent. Hitherto (we believe we are correct in stating), either from the peculiarity of the soil or of the climate, or, as some say, from adulteration by the air- borne pollen of the inferior native plant, the improved and altered character of the cotton has never been kept up." " The point we have to bear in mind, then, is this : our desideratum is not simply more cotton, but more cotton of the same character and price as that now imported from the States. If India were to send us two mill- ions of bales of Surat cotton per annum, the desideratum would not be supplied, and our perilous problem would still be unsolved. We should be almost as dependent on America as ever." These observations of a practical manu- facturer bring out conclusively this truth, that for the uses to which our cotton is ap- plied we are without competition. The long- stapled is too dear, and the short too coarse, fuzzy, weak, and rough to be substituted for ours. It thus appears that we have a monopoly MONOPOLY SLAVE LABOR EXCHANGE FOR MANUFACTURES. 119 of the European market, because we furnish a cheaper and better article for the same price. And this excellence is due to our soil and climate, and to the cheapness of the labor by which cotton is cultivated. The soil is everywhere favorable for cotton in our southern states. Where it is rich enough to produce any thing it will produce cotton. The climate is our main peculiarity. Although we are so near the equator that we have six months of the summer, and some- times more, without a frost .that will kill so tender a plant as cotton, we have in all that time a succession of rain, and sunshine, and dews, and clouds, such as belong to temperate latitudes. The weather is hot enough for cotton, and yet rainy and showery, so as to keep the growth of the plant vigorous, and bring to perfection a succession of fruit on the stalks from July to November. The first pickings begin as early as July at some places, everywhere in August, and during the whole of September and October new blossoms are appearing, new bolls forming, and new pods opening their silky product for the hands of the cultivator. Even after the frost has stopped the growth of the plant and stripped it of its leaves, the bolls still open, and the fields are whitened with a suc- cession of fruit, until January arrives and warns the planter to prepare for another crop. This succession of rain and sunshine does not occur in India, which, after the United States, produces the principal part of the European supplies. And this is the reason that the American variety of the cotton plant will not grow there, or soon degen- erates to the coarse, rough, short-stapled article which is native to the country. Another advantage we have over India is the length and cost of the voyage. It is worth two and a half or three cents a pound to transport cotton from our sea-ports to Liv- erpool. The distance from India to England being twice as great, and the voyage more than twice as long, freights and other ex- penses must increase in a like ratio ; and as the best qualities of Bombay and Surat are worth, even now, when prices are high in England, only eight or nine cents, it is evi- dent that almost nothing is left for the interior producer, especially for the inferior qualities. We can produce cotton with profit at much lower rates than we now name. A decline to the Indian planter is ruinous, because freights are stationary, and all, or nearly all the proceeds in England will be consumed in the transportation. Probably, however, the greatest advantage we have over the Indian producers is in the cheapness of our labor. It is true that wages are very low in India, but the labor is also inefiicient. We have the cheapest and most efficient labor in the world. The African slave in the southern states is well fed with good and substantial food, that gives him strength, endurance, and health. He is well clad in winter, and well lodged, to protect him from the inclemencies of the season. He is cheerful, able to work, and he works faithfully. As the whole cost of this labor to the state is made up of the simplest necessaries of life, the support of the young, and the old, and the feeble, it is evident that the south has the cheapest la- bor that is possible. It was the doctrine of Malthus, that in every country there is a constant tendency to reduce the wages of labor down to the mere support of the la- borer. That limit, however approximated to elsewhere, has never been reached but in the south. The slave is supplied with all he wants of meal, and with as much meat as is needed for his health and strength. This meal is prepared in many ways, and makes a most palatable bread. His master generally feeds on it in preference to flour. He has a gar- den, where he can raise potatoes, cabbages, collards, greens, turnips, beans, and such other vegetables as the taste and industry of the family may desire. He has clothing — cheap, it is true, but warm and substantial. There is a separate dwelling for each fami- ly, and an unlimited supply of fuel for the winter. The old, who are unable to labor in the field, find some slight work about the house — the men in the garden, the women in the care of young children whose mothers are out on the usual plantation work. The sick are carefully attended to by regular physicians and good nursing. All this is essential to the health and strength of the laborer, and to his efficiency on the plantation. The humanity and sym- pathy of the master, who has often been reared by some of his slaves, are sufficient to secure their comfort ; but if these should be wanting, there is an inexorable law se- curing the necessary wants of the servant. With less meat, or with insufficient food, the slave is unfitted for regular work. With less clothing, he is liable to sickness aft4 120 COTTON CULTURE. disease. Without attention and nursing in sickness, his life is endangered, and his ser- vices lost to his master. These demands, united with the influences of humanity and sympathy, secure him the necessaries and some of the comforts of life. Another element of the cheapness of this labor is that nothing is wasted in vicious in- dulgences. In other countries, a large part of the wages of labor is expended in strong drink ; but the most stringent laws are every- where passed against selling spirits to slaves ; the Maine liquor law is enforced with the most severe penalties, and with the utmost certainty of conviction for the guilty. Much time is lost in free countries in holi- days and shows ; in idleness and neglect of work; in seeking employment; in change from one place to another; but all this is saved in the south, for there are no idle hands about the plantation, and, excepting the week between Christmas and New Year's day, when there is a general holiday, there is no lost time, except from sickness, in any part of the year. The children are all put at work at eleven or twelve years of age, as soon as they are able to guide a plough or pick cotton in the fields. The women and men are both ef- ficient workers, and the division of labor is so complete that the children of many moth- ers are watched over and cared for by one, and the cooking for many families attended to by a single cook. This system of labor is thus the cheapest possible. The corn and the meat being, in most cases, raised on the plantation, and not burdened with the cost of transportation, are supplied at the cheapest prices ; the work is all light and easy, so that women and boys, as well as men, can engage in it efficiently. Every thing is arranged so that labor is se- cured at the lowest possible rate. Some philanthropists, indeed, object to the system on this account : that the slave ob- tains no wages. But he has food and cloth- ing, a house and fire, proper attention when sick, and support in old age. His children are taken care of, and every necessary want supplied. For an idle and improvident race like the negro, these are more than wages. They are more than his industry would se- cure. He would not earn as much for him- self were he free, as he now receives from his master ; and these earnings would be wasted in drink, or in excessive indulgences, or in dress, or in luxuries, leaving for himself and his family times of want and suffering, with nothing laid up for sickness and old age. Now he is industrious and temperate, and receives the necessaries of life in return; then he would be lazy, and wasteful, and des- titute. As industry and temperance are great virtues, and the necessaries of life at all seasons and times, in sickness and health, in youth and old age are a great boon to the laboring poor ; and as want, and suffering, and neglect when sick or aged are great and real evils, philanthropy surely wastes its sympathy on the slave when it complains that he is denied his wages. The culture of cotton is specially suited for slave labor, because of its giving full employ- ment for the whole year. January is devoted to fitting up the fences, clearing off the decayed trees that have fallen in the fields, and put- ting in order the cultivators and all the imple- ments of the farm. The ploughs are also started, and some of the ground broken up for spring planting. February is the main time for ploughing, and in the more southern part of the cotton country, corn is planted in this month. In latitude 31° the time for com is the 20th of February ; above this line it gradually becomes later. About a month after the corn, cotton is planted. In every locality it is desired to have the cotton up as soon as the fear of frost is gone. The season for planting begins as early as the 15th of March in the most southern lati- tudes, is delayed to the 1st of April at the parallel of 32°, to the 15th in latitude 34°, and later still above this line. As the seed are planted close together in drills, the hands pass along the rows and chop down the weakest and smallest plants, leaving them in bunches, fifteen to twenty inches apart. The ploughs follow or precede the hoes, both be- ing necessary to kill the grass and soften the ground about the plants. The hoes follow again, and thin out the bunches to one or two stalks, and finally they are reduced to one, the rest having perished from the cut- worm or insects, or the blows of the plough and the hoe. For two or three months this hoeing and ploughing, to soften the ground and destroy the grass, gives full employment to the hands. The corn has also to be treated in the same way, and the work is continued on both until the summer has come and the fruit begins to appear on the cotton. There is a little leisure now to the hands before the picking is begun, and this gives time to har- vest the wheat that has been sown; to cut MONOPOLY SLAVE LABOR EXCHANGE FOR MANUFACTURES. 121? the oats, and gather the fodder from the corn. This work fills up the time until the picking begins. At first, but few of the pods are open. The hands pass between the rows — which are from three to four feet wide on the poor lands, and from six to seven on the richest — and as the branches stretch out so as to reach each other, they each gather from two rows as they pass through the field. By September the fields are white with the opening cotton, and every hand, young and old, male and female, that can be of any ser- vice, is busied in gathering the cotton, lest the rain should come and beat it out, and scatter it on the ground. In October this picking continues undiminished. At the close of this month, frost usually appears, and stops the growth of the plant and kills the leaves, but the pods keep opening, and new cotton offering itself to the hands until De- cember. The fields are picked over twice or three times if the season is favorable and the crop large, and five or six times if the opening cotton does not hurry the planter. The gathered cotton has now to be sunned, and dried, and ginned, and packed, and de- livered at the nearest railway station or river landing, or sold in the neighboring town. Thus is the year completed with unremitting toil, from Christmas to Christmas. The distribution of labor between the white and black races, so that the former shall have the selection of the products and of the place of labor, of the seeds and the mode of cultivation, and of all the plans and management of the plantation, is another great aid to the cheapness and the efficiency of the labor. Some political economists have supposed that free is cheaper than slave labor; but though there are pursuits where the watch- fulness, foresight, intelligence, and energy of a free man will make his labor so much more productive than that of a slave as to pay the superior cost of his support, it is certain that the want of these qualities in the slave is but a slight drawback to the value of his labor in the production of cotton. The work is so regular, and simple, and easy, that the free man performs it no better than the slave, and as the direction, and management, and skill are in the master, the work is well directed, and wisely managed. The slave works enough, though he does not work as hard as some free men. In fact, it is very doubtful if a free white man, impelled by necessity or the desire of accumulation, would be more efficient in the cotton field than the slave. Certain it is that in the south, where the hot sun breeds disease, and the malarious air brings fevers, the white freeman could not produce as much as the slave, much less could he labor as cheaply. His expenditures being more, his wife and children not working at all, or but little, his waste of time and money in vicious prac- tices and holidays, would require larger wages, and for these he has nothing more to give than the slave. The slaves marry and are given in mar- riage as regularly and religiously as the white peasants of any country ; and though the marriage has not a legal sanction, it has the religious and moral. They are kept to- gether with their families far more than the white people. On many plantations there are one or two hundred negroes, all de- scended from three or four families ; while the children of the first master have been scattered from Maine to Texas. They have regularly improved since first introduced from Africa, and are now improving, from year to year, in intelligence, in moral culture, in intellectual development, in appearance, in habits, in comfort ; and they are as cheer- ful and faithful, as devoted to the interests of their master, as attached to him and his family, as if they were free hired servants, receiving regular wages. There is no men-* dicity, no need for poor-houses, asylums, hospitals; for the master's house is the asylum of the slaves ; his wife and his daughters their nurses, and his own doctor their physician. Such a set of laborers, able and willing to work, contented and happy, with every want supplied, and yet costing the master the least possible sum needed for their health and their strength, fur- nish the cheapest and most efficient labor possible. As the south sends nothing to the north that can be produced there, there is no con- flict between the labor of the north and the south. There is no competition, no tendency to equalization in wages, no interference the one with the other. They are, in fact, mutual helps to each other, as town and country, as man and wife, as the limbs, and the head, and the heart of the human body. The high wages at the north cannot be reduced by the labor of the slave. Instead of re- duction, it causes an increase. His cheap toil is for their advantage. His labors, under the hot tropical sun, are for the benefit of 132 COTTON CULTURK. every mechanic, and artisan, and workman, that now fears the competition of the north- •ern free black. As a slave he benefits them, as a free man he would be in their way. We have one more point to mention to complete the explanation we suggest of our high prices, and this is the operation of the tariff. By a tax at the sea-ports on any article imported, its price is so raised that the American producer of the same kind of goods is enabled to raise his price. This advance enables him to pay higher rates to his workmen, and to the capitalist, and to all concerned in the manufacture. But it prevents, also, the exportation of his goods, because they are too high for the foreign market. Being thus unable to pay for the supplies he must have from abroad, the cotton planter comes to his aid with a prod- uct much wanted abroad, and raised here under favorable circumstances of soil and climate, and with a cheap kind of labor that does not compete with the labor of the man- ufacturer. This will pay for the foreign sup- plies of both, and the planter buys them, and takes in return the high-priced manu- factures. Thus high prices are sustained, at the expense, indeed, of the planter, but to the great advantage and prosperity of the north and the west. We have now considered the several points of the explanation we proposed for our high prices, that in cotton we have an article of great profit to the planters, produced by cheap labor, although the other labor of the country is dear; in large and intense de- mand in Europe and all parts of the world, because it furnishes the cheapest material for clothing, for the production of which there is no competitor with us, as we have almost a monopoly of the market ; and that by means of this export we pay for our foreign sup- plies, and by our tariff raise the price of the imports to our own high limit, and thus sus- tain the rates of labor and capital, and secure the prosperity of our country. High prices for labor on iron, on cotton and woollen manufactures, and on all the articles we import from abroad, we could not have without a tariff; this tariff could not be maintained without an export of some product, famished by nature or made with cheap labor, in intense demand abroad ; for otherwise it would be impossible to pay for our imports. Cotton furnishes the desired article, and thus makes prices high both for labor and money, since the rates for the one and the other closely correspond at all times and in all countries. Precisely the same set of operations has been going on in California for the past ten years. Nature there, as here, furnishes a product which pays well to those who ob- tain it ; the gift of nature there being in the mines, and here in the soil and climate. The miner there and the cultivator here are well paid for their labor. Both productions are in intense demand abroad ; and both unite in enabling us to pay for our foreign impor- tations, without reducing to the foreign limit the wages of labor and the interest of capital that supply these products. It may, perhaps, be proper to confirm the propositions we have been considering by inquiring into the course of our domestic trade. If the true explanation has been given of the anomaly of high prices prevail- ing in a country engaged in a large com- merce with the rest of the world, we will find large transfers to the south of manufac- tures from the north, and of agricultural products from the west ; because cotton be- ing very profitable to the planter, and nearly all the labor of the south being appropriated to this culture, the northern manufacturer will supply all his wants of every kind in which labor is the chief element, and the western farmer will supply him with all those articles of food that are of easy trans- portation. In fact, we find in the south that any article of necessity, comfort, or luxury comes from the north. If we enter the dwellings, or the shops, or the stores of the cotton states, they tell all the same story — every thing comes from the north. As I rose from my bed this morning and surveyed the furniture of my chamber, I found nothing made at home. The bed- stead, netting, and canopy; the coverlet, sheets, and ticking ; the bureau, wardrobe, washstand, and crib ; the tables, chairs, mir- rors, curtains, carpet, bell-wire, and tassel ; the medicine chest, and all its bottles, and mix- tures, and quack preparations ; all the per- fumery, and cosmetics, and jewelry, and brushes, and powders ; every article of dress, or clothing, or ornament ; even the white- wash on the walls, and the paint on the wood-work, and the glass in the windows were from the north. As I came from the chamber to the library, I found no change. The book-case, curtains, carpet, pictures, tables, sofas, paper, ink-stand, pen, and ink were from the north. There was a northern MONOPOLY SLAVE LABOR EXCHANGE FOR MANUFACTURES. 123 grate for northern coal; a marble mantel from the north, with vases and photographs ; globe and statuary from the same source. I opened the book-cases, and run my eye over the shelves, to see if any could be found with a southern imprimatur; but though some had on them the names of southern authors, it was a long while before I found » southern publishing house. There was " Beulah," but it had not Mobile on its title- page ; Dr. Thornwell's " Truth," but it was not published in Columbia ; the " Laws of Georgia," but they were printed in New York ; " Cobb on Slavery," but it claimed to be from Philadelphia ; Stevens' " History of Georgia," but it came from Appleton's, on Broadway ; " White's Statistics" had Savan- nah on its title-page, but I suspected this was a counterfeit stamp, and that it had not been printed in the south ; Judge O'Neall's "Historical Sketches of Carolina" claimed to be from Charleston, and this was the first genuine southern print I found in my library. A more diligent search discovered others, but they were few and far between. As I went to the breakfast-room, the exclusion of the south was not so complete. The side- board, and its glass and silver were from the north, but it had on it a handsome pitcher from our own kaolin; the window-shades, clock, tables, chairs, and crumb-cloth were from the same source ; but there was a lounge manufactured here. Albert gave me my coffee in a northern cup, on a northern waiter, sweetened with Stuart's sugar, but the cream was from home ; Ziney brought in hot waffles on a northern plate, but the corn, and flour, and eggs of which they were made were produced here ; the water was handed in a northern tumbler, and cooled with Bos- ton ice, but the water-cooler had on it a do- mestic stamp ; the butter was southern, though hardened in a New England refriger- ator ; the cantelopes were raised here, though the salt and pepper which seasoned them were not ; the hot biscuits were from south- ern flour, but the yeast-powders with which they were raised were from New York ; the beef-steak was from our own market, but the tongue had been brought a thousand miles from home ; the clabber was fresh from our own dairy, but the cheese was from New Jersey ; the white, hot, smoking hominy was a domestic product, but the dish in which it was served was not; the bread was from our town bakery, but the ham was from Cin- cinnati ; the knives, and forks, and spoons, and caster, and vinegar, and oil, and mustard were from the north, but the catsup was made here ; the fish were from Savannah, but they had been brought up by a north- ern locomotive, running on English rails ; the walls and doors were covered with paint manufactured at the north, but the fioor was of Georgia pine ; the locks, and keys, and andirons, and shovel, and tongs, and hearth- broom, and rug, and oil-cloth, and table- linen, and napkins were not made here, but the morning newspaper was printed on paper made at home, out of southern rags, and by southern labor. After breakfast Albert drove me down town in a northern buggy, behind a northern horse, with northern harness, and reins, and whip. I stopped at a furniture shop, and asked how much of their stock was made here ; and they said about fifty dollars in a thousandjthe southern work being principally of pine ; I asked at a book store the same question, and they told me, including law books and the reports of our supreme court, , perhaps one dollar in a hundred ; I asked at a tin shop, and they said their stoves, and gas > fixtures, and lamps, and japanned work, and- block tin were from the north, but that their • tin ware was made in their own shop, though out of English plate and with northern solder ; I enquired at a shoe shop, and they told me they had several hands employed on customers' work, but the great proportion of their sales were from Boston ; I stopped at the paper warehouse, and was sure now that I had found a shop with home-made- products, but they told me they only manu- factured wrapping paper, and supplied the- newspaper offices, but their card, and post,, and letter paper was from the north ; I drove ^ to the cotton mills, and here found a genuine home manufacture, but their machinery,, and looms, and spools, and oil were from the same northern hive, whose products swarm over every part of our country. The south are an agricultural people, de- voted to the production of cotton, because it is more profitable than any other employ- ment, and they are able and willing to buy their supplies from the north, because it is their interest to do so. Their labor is em- ployed according to the irresistible laws of. trade in the most remunerating pursuit, and' they can afford to buy the manufactures they want, because they can be furnished cheaper than they can make them. They might tan their own leather, make their 124 COTTON CULTURE. own slices, weave their own cottons and w^oolens, put together their own clothing, brew their own ale, distil their own grain, press their own wine, reduce, cast, and refine their iron, mine their coal, build their car- riages, print their books, polish their marble, and manufacture their own furniture, and china, and hardware, and carpets, and cloth- ing; but they find it their interest to buy them, and appropriate their labor to the growing of cotton, and the raising of those heavy agricultural products that can not be brought here cheaply, and the manufacture of the coarser and cheaper goods on which the cost of transportation is large. [We have thought it advisable to let this description of cotton culture by slave labor, with its now exploded politico-economical theories, remain, as a part of the history of the past, and as exemplifying the arguments used to defend the agricultural policy and the slave system of the south. It is, of course, now of no practical value, except as history, for a complete revolution has passed over the south, and though the time may and probably will come within five or ten years, when larger crops of cotton will be gathered than were ever produced in the days of slavery, it will be under a very different system, and without the waste and impover- ishment of the soil which was inevitable un- der the old methods. It was at the epoch of its greatest production, that the blow fell upon this department of agricultural indus- try, and demonstrated to the world that cot- ton was no longer King. The export of the crop of the year 1860, is officially reported as having been, 15,598,698 pounds of Sea Island cotton, and 1,752,087,640 pounds of upland, equivalent to 4,419,216 bales of 400 pounds each, and of a reported value of $191,- 806,555. The export of the crop of 1861, with an imperfect blockade, was 307,516,- 099 pounds, equal to 768,790 bales of 400 pounds each. In 1862, the blockade was more stringent, and orders had been issued for the cultivation of corn instead of cotton, and the export fell to 5,064,564 pounds, equal to 12,661 bales of 400 pounds, and of a value of only 11,180,113. In 1863, the export was 11,384,986 pounds, or 28,462 bales of 400 pounds, worth $6,652,405. In 1864 the export was a trifle more, 11,992,- 911, equal to 29,982 bales, and valued at $9,895,854. The crop of 1865 was very small, but about 1,200,000 bales of the crops of former years, which had been concealed, were thrown upon the market, and immedi- ately taken up by our own manufacturers. The export was but little more than that of 1862, being 6,607,166 pounds, equal to 16,- 518 bales, and valued at $5,720,549. The crop of 1866 was large for the first crop raised by free labor and under such circum- stances, and the export was 650,572,829 pounds, equal to 1,626,432 bales, and brought more than any cotton export ever made from this country, viz., $281,385,223. The sub- sequent crops and exports have been still larger in quantity but owing to the fall in the price of cotton have not realized as large returns. The crop of 1 867 was about 2,390,- 000 bales, and the export 1,678,684 bales, realizing $201,470,423. The crop of 1868 was, in round numbers, 2,700,000 bales of 400 pounds to each bale, and the export 1,961,909, valued at $152,820,733. The crop of 1869 exceeded 3,000,000 bales of 400 pounds, and the export was not far from 2,000,000 bales. More cotton will be raised as soon as there is a better supply of intel- ligent labor in the south ; and very possibly as soon as 1875 the production may reach five million bales, but henceforth the land will not be exhausted by this crop, deeper plowing, better tillage, ample manuring, and a rotation of crops taking the place of the slovenly culture of the old slavery period ; more cotton will be raised to the acre, and other crops will be cultivated largely in con- nection with it. It is doubtful whether for many years to come the exports of this sta- ple will be as large as they were in 1860, for not only are the northern factories increas- ing their consumption of it, but, in the south, factories are springing up in all directions to manufacture the cotton before it has accu- mulated the added costs of transportation. Cotton must continue to be for years to come one of our great crops, but it is doubt- ful whether it will surpass the Indian corn, the hay, or, taking the years together, the wheat crop. — Editor.] PICKING COTTON. i The season of cotton picking commences in the latter part of July, and continues without intermis- sion to the Christmas holidays. The work is not heavy, but becomes tedious from its sameness. The field hands are each supplied with a basket and bag. The basket is left at the head of the " cotton- rows;" the bag is suspended from the "picker's" neck by a strap, and is used to hold the cotton as it is taken from the boll. "When the bag is filled it is emptied into the basket, and this routine is continued through the day. Each hand picks from two hundred and fifty to three hundred pounds of " seed cot- ton" each day, though some negroes of extraordinary ability go beyond this amount. If the weather be very fine, the cotton is carried from the field direct to the packing-house ; but generally it is first spread out on scaff'olds, where it is left to dry, and picked clean of any " trash" that may be perceived mixed up with the cotton. Among the most characteristic scenes of plantation hie i: the returning of the hands at nightfall from the field, with their well-filled baskets of cotton upon thei heads. Falling unconsciously "into line," the stoutest leading the way, they move along in the dim twi liglit of a winter day, with the quietness of spirits rather than human beings. — Harper's Magazine. GATHERING THE CANE. And now may be seen the field-hands, armed with huge knives, entering the harvest field. The cane Is in the perfection of its beauty, and snaps and rattles its wiry-tertured leaves as if they were ribbons, and towers over the head of the overseer as he rides between the rows on his good-sized horse. Sud- denly, you perceive an unusual motion among the foliage — a cracMing noise, a blow — and the long rows of growing vegetation are broken, and every moment it disappears under the operation of the knife. The cane is stripped by the negroes of its leaves, decapitated of its unripe joints, and cut off from the root with a rapidity of execution that is almost marvellous. The stalks lie scattered along on the ground, soon to be gathered up and placed in the cane-wagons, which with their four gigantic mule-teams have just come rattling on to the scene of action with a noise and manner that would do honor to a park of flying artillery. We have already alluded to the fact that the sugar crop has to be gathered in Louisiana within ninety days, or else it wiU be destroyed by the cold ; as a consequence, from the moment the first blow is struck, every thing is inspired with energy. The teams, the negroes, the vegetation, the very air, in fact, that has been for months dragging out a quiescent existence, as if the only object of life was to consume time, now start as if touched by fire. The negro becomes supple, the mules throw up their heads and paw the earth with impatience, the sluggish air frolics in swift currents and ^reatening storms, while the once silent sugar house is open, windows and doors. The carrier shed is full of children and women, the tall chimneys are belching out smoke, and the huge engine, as if waking from a benumbing nap, has stretched out its long arms, given one long-drawn respiration, and is alive. — Marper^s Magazine. SUGAE-CULTIYATION AND CONSUMPTION. ^ The cultivation of cane sugar in the United States has become of considerable importance only in the last ten years. While it has in that time occupied an increasing proportion of the attention of the planters of Texas and Louisiana, it has rather de- clined in other portions of the Southern states. The cane itself is more nearly asso- ciated with Indian corn in the general char- acter of its climatic requirements than any other staple. It differs from corn in this re- spect only in degree, each condition, or the principal condition of temperature, at least, being required in similar, but greater tropi- cal excess for the period of its growth. In the southern parts of the United States the great heat of summer gives this plant a range it attains in no other country of the same mean annual temperature ; and it is restrained only by the limit of its safe endurance of the winter. The cane may be cultivated east of the high plains and deserts of Texas, and south of 34** north latitude. The area now occupied by the cane is quite limited, a part of Texas, the lower parishes of Louisi- ana, a portion of Florida, in the latitude of Tallahassee to Cedar Keys, and the Atlantic coast of Georgia, comprising its extent. The considerable capital required to conduct the culture makes it a larger interest than might be inferred from this limited extent of area. The cane was first introduced into Louis- iana in 1751, and the first plantation was established by Mr. Dubreul in 1758, a little more than a century since. The progress was not rapid, however, until 1794, when the revolution of St. Domingo drove some few Frenchmen to fly for refuge from their burning houses and their frantic pursuers on board American vessels, with such of their faithful slaves as would follow them. When there, they naturally turned their hopes to Louisiana, where they might find a home for themselves and their servants among kindred French. To these unhap- py men Louisiana owes the introduction of the Creole cane, a small yellow kind, which only was then grown in the French islands. About the same period the cane culture was introduced into Georgia. There had been j there growing and flourishing from the time of the first settlement of the country by General Oglethorpe, luxurious orange trees. As similar trees in Louisiana had been de- stroyed by the frost, while those in Georgia flourished uninjured, the idea was suggested to an enterprising planter that if under such circumstances cane would grow in Louisiana it would also grow in Georgia. In 1805 he procured* 100 plants of the Otaheite cane that had been sent by Lieutenant Bligh from Otaheite. These 100 canes multiplied to 2000, and from these most of the plantations in Georgia and Florida were propagated. The question of labor in the English West Indies was then sufl[iciently discussed to in- duce many planters to leave Jamaica for new settlements, and many were attracted to Georgia by the luxuriant growth of the cane. The price of sugar was then, under the embargo, about ten cents per pound, and many plantations were established. The canes spread up the Altamaha, the Oconee, and the Ocmulgee, and luxuriated in the fine lands of Florida and Georgia to a dis- tance of 150 miles from sea. Nevertheless, the manufacture was not many years after mostly abandoned in that region on a large scale or for export, but it is still conducted to a considerable extent for plantation and home use. It did not there pay so well as rice or cotton, since the product per acre was less than half what it had risen to be in Louisiana. In the rich lands of that state and Texas the product per acre is 2400 pounds against 1000 pounds even in the richest river lands of Georgia. There are five kinds of cane in use by the planters of Louisiana, viz., the Bourbon, which has large eyes, a dark purple color, and is very hardy ; the green ribbon is of a bright yellow color, with delicate green stripes ; the^ 128 SUGAR — CULTIVATION AND CONSUMPTION. eye is small, elongated, and delicate in its structure ; the red rihhon has purple stripes of an inch or less in width, and can resist light frost ; the Otaheite has large joints, does not grow high, and has a comparative- ly thin skin, and is easily affected by the frost, yet its juice is rich and abundant ; the Creole cane yields a superior kind of sugar, but it has been less used than the Bourbon on account of its less hardy na- ture. It is now getting more into favor again. These are the varieties mostly used in Louisiana. The mode of culture is simple and allied to that of Indian corn. The canes are propagated by cuttings, and these are planted in the fall, seldom as early as Octo- ber, since the planters have no time until the grinding season is over. The riper por- tion of the stalk is generally used for cane seed ; others cut the cane in the middle and use the green tops for planting. The land is well ploughed, harrowed, and marked off in rows three to five and even eight feet apart. As the cane must reach its full growth in nine months, a good distance apart is thought necessary to promote ac- cess of the sun and the circulation of air. A double-mould-board plough follows the mark- er, opening a clear furrow for planting. In the furrow the canes are laid straight in such a manner that the eyes may freely throw out their shoots. They are covered from four to six inches. The young plants are culti- vated much as Indian corn, in rows. The planting is done in some parts of Louisiana once in three years. The first year it is call- ed "plant cane," and the subsequent growths are called rattoons. But sometimes, as on the prairies of Attakapas and Opelousas and the higher northern range of its cultiva- tion, it requires to be replanted every year. Within the tropics, as in the West Indies and elsewhere, the rattoons frequently con- tinue to yield abundantly for twelve, fifteen, and even twenty-four years from the same roots. In Louisiana in the fourth year the land is put in corn and peas. After the corn is gathered the stalks and peas are ploughed in, and the land is ready for cane again. In Louisiana the cane never ripens, and therefore is allowed to grow as long as it ca^i be done with safety from frost. In the latter part of October, they commence by saving their seed, that is, by cutting the cane they need for planting, and securing it by placing it in mats, so called, on the ground, say twenty feet by forty, resting it on an embankment, with the buts on the ground at an angle of about twenty degrees, and leaving a mass of tops on the surface, a foot deep and forming a perfect protection from frost. Next they commence taking off the crops. Every negro has at all times in his posses- sion a cane knife, like a butcher's cleaver, and kept very sharp. With the back of the knife he knocks off the dry leaves, and cuts off the stalk as of no value where the leaves are green. Should a frost come whilst they are making sugar, the work is stopped, and all hands are employed winnowing the cane in the fields, as a fermentation commences immediately, if it is allowed to stand. The cane is as certain as any large crop we have. When the cane is gathered it is prepared for the mill. These are some twelve feet from the ground, in order that the juice may flow from the rollers into the juice boxes, and from them into the kettles. The mills are composed of three iron rollers from twenty-five to twenty-eight inches in diameter, and from four to five and a half feet long. There are a great number of in- ventions that have been patented within a few years. The cane carrier is an endless belt, fifty to ninety feet long, formed of chains, with slats inserted and placed at an angle of thirty to thirty-five degrees to the ground. The lower end is about two feet from the ground. On this the canes are spread evenly, and by its revolution they are carried up to the rollers which ex- press their juice as they pass through. The juice thus obtained is collected in large res- ervoirs, to go through a process of boiling which has been greatly varied by improve- ments upon the old Creole plan. The juice, by boiling and evaporation, is reduced to the state of muscovado, which is placed in hogs- heads with holes bored in the bottom, to permit the molasses to pass off. In the course of the boiling, lime is added in pre- pared portions to " defecate" the sugar, and the juice is bleached by passing through a filter of bone-black. Very many inventions have been patented for kettles, vacuum pans, etc., to facilitate the boiling process, and others to promote the discharge of the mo- lasses. One of these is by centrifugal force. The sugar is placed in a cylinder of iron net- work, which, revolving with great rapidity, imparts to the molasses a centrifugal motion that drains it from the sugar through the net, when it is collected in proper vessels. SUGAR CULTIVATION AND CONSUMPTION. 129 The introduction of bisulphate of lime of late years lias added greatly to the quantity of sugar that may be obtained from a given quantity of cane, and also to its quality. The quantity of sugar produced on an acre varies from 500 lbs. to 3000 lbs. ; the average may be 1000 lbs. A well-cultivated planta- tion in Louisiana produces 2400 lbs. sugar and 2000 lbs. or 160 gallons molasses per acre. Some mills will turn out 1000 gal- lons juice per hour, twenty hours in a day, giving ten hogsheads of sugar, or 12,000 lbs. and 20 bbls. molasses, or 800 gallons, 12 lbs. to the gallon. The expenses and products of a plantation in Louisiana have been given as follows in official documents : — Household expenses $1000 Overseer's salary 400 Food and clothing — 15 working hands at $30 450 " " 15 old hands and chil- dren, $15 225 Repairs, l^ per cent on capital ($40,000). . . 600 $2675 50 hhds. sugar at 4 cents per lb $2500 2^ " " " 3 " " 862 25 " " " 2 " " 515 4000 galls, molasses, 10 cents 400 — 4137 Balance $1462 There are many other products raised by the hands besides sugar. Thus there are in Louisiana 200,000 hands, and these produced in 1859, 362,296 hhds. of sugar, worth with the molasses $31,399,241 ; and in addition they raised 6,327,882 bushels of corn, or 31 bushels per head ; and 4,91 1,680 lbs. of rice, jor 24,.529.600 517,762 988,416 606,526 851,470 771,623 583,169 682,044 209,897 397,654 87,445 212,.592 192,214 305,391 92,.597 6,077 13,294 7,500 61,547 11.380 176,623,654 152,870,399 8.^,901,204 114,782,645 98,870,118 96,790,513 86,802,101 20,372,101 30,877,223 10,924,107 30,149,671 23,714,638 26.71.5..525 21,923,173 262,088 5,063.474 5,174,471 986,083 17,455,653 2,339,511 708,002 1,350,428 791,305 1,711,951 964,201 628,279 1,182,012 435,450 749,113 140,425 504,215 674,913 775,881 379,994 172,123 52,468 107,206 6.857 28,841 75.441 93,516 40,273 11,594 34.277 4,837 S9,371,612,969 1,193,898,422 602,118,.568 528,835,371 607.324,911 871.860,282 495,237,078 190,211,600 501,214,398 219.256,473 257,163,983 73,101,500 365,200,614 247,338,265 273,671,668 207,874,613 52,294,413 28,930,639 31,327,895 9,131,056 20,813,768 5,596,118 5.601,466 .2,051.062,960 2,318,475,080 3.929,827 8479,282,646 8,646,427 $l,422.fi84,820 23,266,876 4,710,255,736 14,062.101 31,527,754 $6,788,203,099 16,159,816,068 In 1869 these exchanges exceed $4O,0O0,0OO,0CO. t Made a county of Washington Territory in 1870. SHIPS TONNAGE NAVIGATION LAWS. 161 CHAPTER III. SHIPS— TONNAGE— NAYIGATION LAWS. The appearance of the United States as a nation was fraught with the most extraordi- nary results in respect to the condition, pol- icy, and governments of Europe, but in none greater than in respect of navigation. From the moment that the stars and stripes floated from the mast-head of a merchantman, a revolution was commenced which has not yet ceased its influence upon the commerce of the world. Up to that time, England had gradually attained the supremacy of the seas. The Dutch, who had fought a steady battle with the ocean, until they had driven it back and fortified their country by dykes from its invasion, had earned a right to rule ; which, by their energy, they did for a time. Their country was small, however, and pro- duced but little : hence, there was no room to support commerce in the face of the power of England. Great Britain is an island of great productive power, although but little larger than New York. Its coast is indent- ed on all sides with good harbors ; and from which side soever the wind blows, it is fair for some of her vessels to arrive, and others to depart. A sea-girt population is neces- sarily a nautical population. The English were peculiarly fitted for sea adventure; and with such advantages, added to their skill in building, they could not fail to ac- quire ascendancy upon the ocean, which their large population maintained and fed by planting colonies in all parts of the, world. When the commerce of England had well grown, as a consequence of these advan- tages, her government, in the hands of Crom- well, sought to increase it by enacting the famous " navigation law," which was popular, because it professed to give England the supremacy of the ocean. The principle of the law was, that no goods should be im- ported into England from Asia, Africa, or America, except in British vessels; that goods imported from Europe in European vessels should pay more than if imported in British vessels. This was very plausible. It would, it was supposed, give England the world's commerce ; but as there then exist- ed none but British vessels in either of the three continents out of Europe, there was no more trade, in consequence of the law, than before. The law was a dead letter. The growth of English commerce was evidentljF great. The statesmen of Europe ascribed it rather to the law than to the circumstances of the people, and they imitated its provisions. The trade between England and her colonies was large, but the vessels were all British. The development of this industry of the North American colonies, and their trade, was probably the first real opposition on the ocean that the Dutch received. So much did it flourish in the seventeenth century, that Sir Joshua Childs, writing in 1670, states that " Our American plantations em- ploy nearly two-thirds of our English ship- ping, and thereby give constant subsistence to, it may be, 200,000 persons here at home." Ship-building had been pursued with great success in the colonies ; and the genius of the colonists had already given their ships a distinctive character. On the declaration of peace, in 1783, that "bit of striped bunt- ing" was found floating at the gaft' of all the best vessels. They, by the law, could now carry no goods to England. The large ex- ports of the United States were now to go in the worst vessels, because they w^ere English. The United States immediately passed a similar law, that forbade any goods to be imported, except in American vessels. The American vessel then went out in bal- last to bring home English goods, and the English vessel came out in ballast to carry home American produce. Two ships were employed to do the work of one, and all im- ports and exports were charged two freights. This was too absurd, even for statesmen. A treaty was consequently made, by which the vessels of both nations were placed upon the same footing. The practical effect of this was to double the quantity of tonnage employed, since the vessels of both nations could now carry freights both ways. The positi9n of affairs was, however, entirely new. The United States — a young country, with few ships and less capital, distributed among a sparse population — presented itself to the old, wealthy, and aristocratic governments of Europe, and demanded of them that they should admit its ships to visit their pop- ulous and wealthy cities, in return for the privilege of their visiting the comparatively poor and unattractive towns of the states. This kind of reciprocal intercourse had never existed ; and the United States now came forward to propose it, and to lay down prin- ciples for its guidance. Their moral influ- ence caused them to be adopted. These principles were, " independence," " equal 162 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. favor," and " reciprocity." These principles were first laid down in the treaty made be- tween France and the United States in 1778, and they became the basis of all subsequent negotiations. The commercial sagacity of the English prompted them to accede at once. The United States vessels were ac- cordingly placed upon the footing of the " most favored nation." From the moment the United States entered that wedge, the hvhole system of exclusiveness began to fall to pieces. There are now forty-eight treaties between the United States and other coun- tries, most of them containing the favored nation clause. The benefits of this example have been so fruitful, that all the nations of Europe have eaten through their old restric- tive systems, by similar treaties with each other. Although England was forced into this concession in her direct trade, she, for a long time, refused it in respect of her col- onies. It was reserved for a later period to force her into that movement. The vessels of the United States having thus gained an international footing, events supervened to give a great impulse to their employment in the carrying trade. In colonial times, Mas- sachusetts Bay was the chief theatre for ship- building, but Maryland was also noted for it. The vessels built in 1771 were as follows: — AN ACCOUNT OF THE NUMBER AND TONNAGE OF VESSELS BUILT IN THE SEVEEAL PBOVINCES IN THE YEAR 1771. Square-rigged ^^^^^P^ vessel!. ,^"^ Tonnage, schooners. New Hampshire 15 40 4,991 Massachusetts Bay ... 42 83 '7,'704 Rhode Island 15 60 2,148 Connecticut 1 39 1,483 New York 9 28 1,698 New Jersey 2 70 Pennsylvania 15 6 1,307 Maryland 10 8 1,645 Virginia 10 9 - 1,678 North Carolina 8 241 South Carolina 3 4 560 Georgia 2 4 543 Total 128 291 24,068 The tonnage entered and cleared for the year 1771, to all ports, was as follows : — Cleared from Entered ^ ^ . . colonies. colonies. Great Bniain 98,025 82,934 Southern Europe 37,237 37717 "West Indies 108,150 106,713 South and Central America. 107,552 104,578 350,964 331,942 This was before the war. After the war, the trade received a great development from the French treaty of 1 778, and from that with Great Britain. The ship-building during the colonial period had been in very different styles, so that every seaman, at a glance, could recognize the origin of the vessel. The Baltimore clipper, the Essex fishing schooner, the Chesapeake schooner, the down east lumber schooner, or brig, the Hudson river sloop, the Long Island sloop, the Newport boat, the Massachusetts Bay dory, were distinct types, and still preserve their styles to some extent, although the march of improvement has tended to assimi- late all styles, by combining their good points. The changes of trade have variec] the demand, and since California has brought clippers in demand, they are now by no means a Baltimore peculiarity. The fishing vessels were peculiarly adapted to their em- ployment. The fisheries were the chief business of the northern colonists, and they had not only the benefit of the large sale to the West Indies and to the Catholic countries of Europe, but the eating of fish in England had, by the law of Elizabeth, in 1563, been ordered on Wednesdays and Saturdays, for the encouragement of seamen, thus affording a large market, from which foreign fish were excluded. The same law became a custom down to our day, it being still almost uni- versal in New England to eat fish on Satur- day. Indeed, so strictly was this custom observed, that in the old slave days of Massachusetts, it being ordered that slaves should not be in the streets on Sunday, a black was arrested on the common. He denied that it was Sunday, and proved his point by showing that " massa no eat salt fish yesterday." The fisheries were thought to be the nursery of seamen, and when the Union was formed, a law of July 4, 1789, allowed a drawback on fish exported equal to the supposed quantity of salt used. This law, in 1792, was changed to a bounty per ton on the vessels engaged in the fisheries, and has been continued down to the present time. The number of tons now in the cod fisheries is 129,637, and the bounty paid to the interest from the origin of the grant to the close of the year 1859, amounts to $12,944,998, of which Maine, New Hamp- shire, and Massachusetts received nearly the whole. It is to be remarked that this bounty-fed interest has prospered less than any other. The whale fishery seemed pecu- liarly adapted to the skill and daring of the American seamen. The whale boats were of a peculiar build, and gradually, although they SHIPS TONNAGE NAVIGATION LAWS. 163 received no protection from the government, they drove away other nations from the seas. The interest is, however, depressed, from the growing scarcity of whales, and the great competition that its product receives from other sources. The making of lard oil brought "prairie whales" into effectual com- petition with those of the ocean. The tonnage engaged in the foreign trade increased up to 1810 very rapidly under the influence of the carrying enjoyed under the treaties with Europe, and the effect of the wars between the great powers. The coast- ing trade did not increase in the same ratio, for the reason that the trade enjoyed by the registered tonnage was not the carrying of American goods, but of foreign products from colonies to Europe. The compara- tive increase of the tonnage is seen as fol- lows : — Eegistered Coasting. Whalers. Cod Mackerel Steam. tons. tons. fishery. fishery. Ocean. Coasting. 1T89, 123,893 68,607 9,062 1810, 984,269 405,347 1,*227 35,168 1821, 619,896 559,435 27.994 51,351 1829, 650,143 508,858 57;278 101,797 35,973 54,036 1840, 899,764 3,176,694 136,926 76,035 28,269 281,339 1850, l,585,ni 1,755,796 146,016 85,646 58,111 44,942 481,004 1858, 2,499,742 2,210,750 198,593 110,896 29,593 78,027 651,363 1863, 1,892,899 2,660,712 133,215 439,755 1868, 1,343,793 1,808,550 70,342 74,763 9,065 221,939 977,476 This table gives a sort of chart of the whole progress of the tonnage. It is observ- able that up to the close of the first period, viz. : to the embargo and non-intercourso of 1809, the registered tonnage, or that engaged in the foreign trade, increased most rapidly ; there were then no large home productions to require much inland transportation, and the carrying trade of Europe was very active. "With the growth of cotton, however, an immense freight was given as well to coasting as to registered tonnage, and that was far more valuable to the latter than the carrying trade which had been lost. When the war and non-intercourse stopped the growth of external tonnage, a great impulse was given to that of the interior. The lakes and rivers began to be covered with craft, which swelled the enrolled tonnage. In the south a good portion of this tonnage was employed in the transportation of cotton to the seaboard, where it was freighted to Europe in regis- tered vessels. The operation of the laws in relation to the measuring of vessels had an injurious influence upon the form. The making the beam of the vessel an element in the calculation of the tonnage she would carry, led to the construction of "kettle bottoms," which swelled out in the form of a kettle, allowing her to carry much more than her register showed. These vessels carried cotton mostly to European ports, whence there was little return cargo; but when, after the war, migration set in freely from Havre, affording a return freight, the form was altered to give accommodation to the passengers, and an impulse was given to ship-building. The latter branch of industry Total. 201,562 1,424,789 1,298,958 1,260,797 2,180,764 3,535,454 5,049,808 5,126,081 4,351,758 languished up to 1829, since there was little carrying trade, and the cotton crop was only one-fourth its present quantity. The British government had refused to allow the West India colonies to be open to American ves- sels. The West Indies, however, were depend- ent upon the United States for supplies of produce, while they were required to send their own sugar, coffee, and rum to the mother country in British vessels. By re- fusing to let American vessels go thither, she sought to secure three freights for British ships. Thus, a vessel left England with goods for the United States, then loaded provisions for the West Indies, and took home thence sugar, etc., to England, making a round voyage. This the United States refused to permit, unless American vessels participated ; and the trade was closed. The English colonists, deprived of American sup- plies, set up a clamor which compelled the. government to open certain ports to Ameri- can ships on the same terms as British ships; and Congress, in return, authorized the Pres- ident, by proclamation, to open United States ports to colonial vessels, whenever he should have proof of a reciprocal movement. This took place in 1830, and the trade has rapidly increased since. The increase of registered tonnage, as of all others, had been large up to 1840, under the general animation that trade encountered from the speculative action of those years. Two circumstances now, however, occurred to enhance the demand for shipping. These were the English-China war, and the Amer- ican-Mexican war. The attempts of tho English to force the opium trade upon tho 164 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. Chinese, contrary to their laws, had induced the Chinese, in 1841, to destroy a large quantity of opium. This brought on the war which resulted in the opening of five Chinese ports to the commerce of the world, and by so doing increased the demand for American ships — always favorites with the merchants in the trade between India and China. One result of the English war with the Chinese was the negotiation of a treaty of a very favorable nature between the United States and the Chinese government. The Americans and English had long traded together, and their nationality had long been a puzzle to John Chinaman. As far as he could see, they both spoke the same lan- guage, although they sailed under different flags ; but, with his natural acuteness, he had observed that the "red-haired devils" had more capital than the Americans ; he conse- quently classified the latter as "second-chop Englishmen." He was now, however, not sorry to give them the advantage in the treaty negotiated by Hon. Caleb Cushing, or, as they styled him, Ku-ching. The re- turn of that minister to the United States across Mexico was attended with a new in- sult from that people, who robbed him of his baggage. Subsequently, the long train of insults heaped upon Americans through the recklessness and arrogance of the Mexi- Lines. Cunard line, Port. Liverpool, Havre, Liverpool, Style. Collins " Scotch » Irish " French " Old Havre line, Vanderbilt " Independent line, Belgian " Bremen ' Hamburg " Cunard " Philadelphia " Portland " North Atlantic L'pool and Great West'n Liverpool, Inman line, " National line, " Pereire " Havre, North German Lloyds, Bremen, Anchor line, Glasgow, Hamburg American, Hamburg, Cork, Havre, Antwerp, Bremen, Hamburg, Boston to L'pool, Liverpool, Southampton, paddle-wheel, screw, paddle-wheel, screw, paddle-wheel, screw, paddle-wheel, screw, paddle-wheel, screw, paddle-wheel, screw, cans, ended in a war in 1846. That event caused a large demand for shipping on the part of the government, for transports. The expedition fitted out under General Scott for Vera Cruz, was the largest naval enterprise ever undertaken by any nation up to that time — that is, a like number of troops had never before been transported so great a dis- tance by sea to open a campaign in an ene- my's country The American expedition was promptly successful. Following these two events, that absorbed so much shipping, came the Irish famine. The same famine, which created the extended demand for American produce, also stimulated a large migration to the United States, furnishing ample freights to the homeward-bound shipping. The increase of steam tonnage was the most remarkable. The first arrival of a steamer from England was the Sirius, April 23, 1838. That experiment was looked upon with distrust, but it has succeeded so far, that twenty-five lines, running one hun- dred and twenty-five ships, have since been started between the United States and Europe. In July, 1840, the Britannia, the Cunard boat, arrived at Boston ; and that line has con- tinued to be almost uniformly successful up to the present time. The lines since started are as follows, mostly running from N. Y. : — Average passaga Vessels. Tons. out. days, hours. Ownership. British, American, British, u French, American. Belgian, American, German, British, American, British, French, German, Scotch, German, 4 5 3 3 2 3 3 3 1 6 2 2 4 3 2 • 5 0 10 10 6 12 12 13 10,360 11,800 9,727 6,612 2,000 4,500 7,200 7,600 1,800 12,590 4,000 2,400 8,100 6,856 3,000 16,000 30,600 30,000 31,000 20,000 36,000 26,000 40,000 14 16 11 10 10 11 13 10 12 11 10 12 0 12 Of these the Collins, the Irish, the Old Havre, the Vanderbilt, the Independent, the Philadelphia, the North Atlantic, and one or two other small lines have proved unsuccess- 337,145 up. The number 123 ful, and been given up. The number of steamers in the Cunard lines has been greatly increased, and they are now all screw steam- ers, as are all the others. There are now about SHIPS — TONNAGE NAVIGATION LAWS. 165 125 steamships in the different lines plying between New York and European ports, but all of tbeiii are at present owned in Europe. Many disasters have attended the ocean service of steam ; but it has been estimated that since the first steamer arrived, in 1838, 1,500,000 persons have crossed the Atlantic by steam. Of this number, perhaps 3,500 have been lost. The first ocean steamer lost was the President, in 1841, with 130 lives. Since then, the losses have been as follows : — President, Arctic, Pacific, Sau Francipco, Central America, Independence, Yankee Blade, City of Glasgow, Union, Humboldt, Franklin, City of Philadelphia, Tempest, Lyonnais Austria, Canadian, Argo, Indian, Northerner, Hungarian, Mississippi, Mexico, Golden Age, City of Boston, Showing that a fleet of twenty-four steam- ers, many of them first-class, have been totally lost within the period named. The President, Pacific, City of Glasgow, Tem- pest, and City of Boston, were never heard from ; the Arctic, San Francisco, and Cen- tral America, foundered ; the Independence, Yankee Blade, Northerner, and Golden Age, were wrecked on the Pacific, and the Cana- dian, Humboldt, Franklin, Argo, Hungarian, Mississippi, and Mexico, on the Atlantic coast ; the Lyonnais was sunk by collision, and the Austria was burnt. The growth of steam service in the in- terior of the country was more rapid than its external development. The amount of steam tonnage in ocean navigation, in 1850, was 44,942, against none in 1840. The in- land tonnage engaged on lakes, rivers, and coasting, was 481,004 — an increase of 283,- 000 in ten years, at a cost of $28,000,000. When the western country, with its fer- Lives Value of ves- Ownership. lo*t. sel and cargo. British, 130 $1,200,000 American, 300 1,800,000 (( 240 2,000,000 u 160 400.000 (( 887 2,500,000 {( 140 100,000 (( •75 280,000 British, 420 850,000 American, •• 300,000 1,600,000 " 1,900.000 British, 600,000 »« 150 300,000 French, 160 280,000 German, 456 850,000 British, it •• 400,000 100,000 u 27 125,000 American, 32 75.000 Brit, (about) 120 270,000 American, 900,000 British, American, 1,000,000 British, 160 900,000 tile fields and magnificent water-courses, attracted settlers, and these had produce for sale, there was but one way to market, and flat-bottomed boats, launched upon the de- scending streams, bore tlie freights to New Orleans. At that pomt they were not un- frequently broken up, the owners returning by land. In 1794, two keel boats sailed from Cincinnati to Pittsburg, making the trip in four weeks. Each boat was covered, so as to be rifle-proof; was loop-holed for muskets, and six guns, to carry pound balls. It was in this manner that persons and property were protected from Indian aggression. The other western rivers presented similar means of travel. Even this was progress, however; and each year saw the numbers and wealth of the dwellers increase. In 1790 the first sea-going brig was built at Marietta, Ohio. She was called the St. Clair, 120 tons, owned and commanded by Commodore Preble, who descended the Ohio and JSlississippi, and arrived, via Hav- ana, at Philadelphia, where she was sold. In 1 802-4, four ships, three brigs, and three schooners were built at Pittsburg for the Ohio navigation. Keel boats and sea-going vessels rapidly multiplied; but the dangers of the navigation retarded commerce The dangeroits falls of the Ohio were a drawback ; and the Kentucky legislature, in 1804, incor- porated a company to cut a canal round them. This was, however, not done until 1830. After 1806, the march of commerce and civilization began to make itself felt, and trade was carried on in keel boats, which, however comfortably they might float m^A the s/rcam,required three months for a voyage from New Orleans to Cincinnati. The first steam- boat on the rivers was built by Fulton at Pitts- burg, in 1811. She cost $20,000, and took her first freight and passengers at Natchez, arriving at New Orleans in December. She continued to run three or four years between those points, eight days up and three days down, clearing, the first year, $20,000. Steam tonnage then rapidly multiplied* The annexation of Louisiana, and the events of the war, had greatly stimulated western trade and river tonnage. From the period last named up to the year 1839 — a period of twenty-eight years, or thereabout — how do we find the aspect of matters altered ? The surface of the " beautiful river," as the French call the Ohio, constantly agitated by the revolutions of paddle-wheels, and its shores decked with cities, towns, and villages, the 166 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. appearance of which sufficiently indicated the vast stores of wealth which a thrifty, in- dustrious population was rapidly bringing to light. It is computed that the country drained by the Ohio and its tributaries em- braces one-third of Pennsylvania, one-third of Virginia, two-thirds of Ohio, all of Ken- tucky, three-fourths of Indiana, and one- fourth of Illinois — making an aggregate of 142,000 square miles, or 91,000,000 of acres. The Ohio rises near the 42 d degree of north latitude, and empties itself into the Missis- sippi, near the 37th degree, within which space all the tributaries, with the exception of the great bend of the Tennessee, are cir- cumscribed. The computation of those who owned the first steamboat on this river, made after her first trip, is said to have been, that if 6 cents freight could be obtained on each pound, and they could get enough to do, the investment would be a profitable one. The result has shown that freight has been reduced to less than a cent, and that ample employment is aff'orded for hundreds of boats ! The number of steamboats built previous to the year 1835 inclusive, ' was 688, of which 173 were built at Pittsburg, and 164 at Cincinnati. The number of boats in active business in 1838 was 357, measuring 65,000 tons, or 180 tons each; and, in 1858, the tonnage had increased to 124,941. The opening of the Erie canal, in 1825, gave a new direction to western produce. The great lakes, from forming a separation from Canada, at once became a means of communication between the inhabitants of the vast circle of their coast and Buffalo, the gateway to the east. Those vast seas form a basin, into which pours from every quarter the produce of eight sovereign states, not including the Canada side. On these lakes a few craft had floated ; and in Erie harbor, in 1812, was built, in seventy days from cutting the timber, that remarkable fleet that bore Perry's flag to victory, and made the lakes American seas. Tonnage multiplied as the produce increased, and the construction of the Ohio canals gave a north- ern direction to it. Up to 1820 there was but one steamer on the lakes, and not until 1827 did a steamer reach Lake Michigan. In 1832 a steam- boat landed troops at Chicago. In 1833 there were on the lakes eleven boats, which had cost $360,000. They carried 61,480 passengers in that year. In 1840 there were forty-eight boats on the lakes, and their value was 12,200,000. In 1859 the number of boats was 186, and the value $3,- 997,000, including propellers. The amount of tonnage upon the lakes, in 1868, was as follows : — STATEMENT SHOWING THE NUMBER, KIND, AND TONNAGB OF VESSELS ENGAGED IN THE COMMERCE OF THE LAKES AND WESTERN RIVERS IN 1868. LAKE VESSELS. Class. Sailing vessels, Steam vessels, Barges, Canal boats, Total, 5,365 1,263 834 285 Total, 2,382 Tonnage. 293.977.85 144J117.15 36,146.44 221,362.88 "6957604.32 WESTERN RIVER VESSELS. Steam vessels, 351,671.39 Barges, 106,168.34 Canal boats, 23,377.88 481,217.61 Adding to these the 19,467 American ves- sels engaged in the traffic of the Atlantic and gulf coasts, with an aggregate measurement of 2,974,975.22 tons, and the 904 vessels of the Pacific coast, with a tonnage of 16 6,- 512.35 tons, and we have a grand total of 28,118 vessels in the home trade with an aggregate measurement of 4,318,309.50 tons. The losses of screw-propellers upon the lakes by wreck and fire, rose from $39,000 in 1848 to $1,159,957 in 1855, and have since diminished to $91,830 last year. The number of vessels lost in ten years was 402, and the value $3,752,131. The number of vessels built in 1858, was 113 on the rivers, and 31 on the lakes. Broad canals and numerous railroads are always busy delivering upon the bosom of the lakes the wealth annually created by 5,000,000 of people, and valued at hundreds of millions of dollars. The borders of those lakes are dotted with cities, whose marvel- ous growth has been proportioned to the rapid settlement of the surrounding country. Oswego, Buffalo, Cleveland, Sandusky, To- ledo, Monroe, Detroit, St. Joseph, Chicago, Milwaukee, Racine, and many smaller ports, have, like nets, so to speak, accumulated a portion of the vast wealth that has rushed by them over the bosom of the lakes. Each of these cities has a large tonnage employed in the transportation of produce and mer- chandise ; and that tonnage has in the last twenty years received a new development by the introduction of the screw-propeller. The invention of Fulton consisted in the adapta- tion of paddle-wheels to propel vessels. The SHIPS — TONNAGE — NAVIGATION LAWS. I6t idea of propelling by a screw in the stern was quite as old as that of the paddle-wheels; it was not, however, successfully constructed until, in 1839, after many failures by others, Ericsson succeeded. A small .iron screw- steamer was built and navigated to this country, in 1839, by Capt. Crane, and she became a tug on the Raritan canal. From that time, screws vindicated their value for certain purposes, as superior to paddles. They have lately performed so well as to lead to the conviction that they will supplant the paddles altogether. This is very certain to be the case with inland navigation. The form of the screw has undergone continual changes, to obviate some of the difficulties that presented themselves. The model until recently in use upon the lakes, is the Loper propeller, invented by Capt. Loper, of Phil- adelphia. The screw was cast in one piece, and of a form that combines many advant- ages, particularly that of hoisting out of water with a fair wind. Within the last three or four years, however, a Buffalo in- vention has been introduced, by which the engineer may regulate the " pitch," or angle of the screw blades, according to the circum- stances, without taking up the screw. These steam propellers are obviously of a nature to monopolize the trade of the lakes. They make their trips with regularity and prompt- ness. There are now 600 on the lakes, with a tonnage of 124,000 ; and 24 paddle-wheels, tonnage 20,117. The great progress made in the last twenty years in railroads, which have come to rival canals and rivers through- out the west and skirting the lakes, has greatly affected the trade in vessels, as well steam as sail. The introduction of steam lessened the amount of tonnage, because steam can perform more voyages. Railroads have again reduced the quantity of tonnage required, because they run all winter, and at all times with greater speed. While this has been taking place, however, greater facil- ities for getting to sea have made ship-build- ing on the lakes more active. Several ves- sels have been built at the lake ports for Liverpool, going down the St. Lawrence, and some schooners have recently been built at Cleveland, to run between Boston and Alba- ny and Chesapeake bay. Those of about 200 tons cost $10,000. The advantage of building on the lakes consists in the fact that ship plank is much cheaper, say $20 in Cleveland to $60 in Boston, spars $40 against $100 ; and the vessel makes a hand- some freight in lumber on the voyage out. These circumstances of the increase of the western and lake tonnage, indicate the means by which freights accumulated at the sea- ports to employ the ocean or registered tonnage, had increased in such rapid pro- portions in the last nine years. The in- crease from 1850 to 1858 was, it appears, 637,410 tons, while the sail coasting tonnage actually declined. The discovery of Califor- nia gold led to the employment of clipper ships for quick passages round the cape, and these, under the pressure of high freights, rapidly multiplied. In 1855, the number of vessels built was 2,034, having a tonnage of 683,450, or a quantity equal to the whole coasting tonnage of the TJnion in 1 830. The tonnage increased too fast, and reaction overtook it. The quantity built in 1859 was only 870 vessels, of 156,602 tons. In ordinary years, cotton is the chief freight of ships, and the ordinary proportion of shipping is as one ton to a bale of cotton produced. The progress of the registered tonnage during the eight years, from 1851 to 1858, was as follows: — REGISTERED TONNAGE. Built. Lost at Condemned sea. Sold to foreigners. Increase. 1851, 1852, 165,850 193,021 23,149 28,083 3,801 2,060 15,247 17,612 123,647 145,265 1853, 209,898 33.850 6,400 10,035 159,613 1854, 320,012 53.493 7,448 59,244 199,826 1855, 1856, 1857, 1858, 336,098 260,676 195,962 96,459 46,149 58,580 63,232 46,198 5,696 6,992 9,371 13,699 65,887 41,854 51,791 25,925 218,366 153,248 71,567 10,635 The building under the clipper fever more than doubled from 1851 to 1852. The sales to foreigners have risen to a large item. In the five years, 1854-58, it amounted to 244, 700 tons, or 20 per cent, of the whole quan- tity built. This, at an average of $100 per ton, amounts to $24,470,000, or yearly aver- age sales of $4,895,000, forming a consider- able manufacture. The cheapened cost of building on the lakes and western rivers will transfer to that region much of that trade. The enrolled tonnage has been as follows : — Sold. Increase. 122,631 200,645 230,144 858 160,848 378 125,847 The amount of shipping owned in the Built. Lost at sea. Condemned 1851, 132,353 7,675 2,047 1853, 215,673 11,819 3,209 1855, 247,351 15,068 2,138 1857, 182,841 19,257 1,887 1858, 145,827 17,263 2,337 168 COMMERCE OP THE UNITED STATES. United States, and engaged in either foreign or domestic commerce, reached its highest point in 1856, and after some remarkable fluctuations, had attained nearly the same point in 1861 ; but the presence of rebel privateers in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans, during the war, led to the sale or transfer of great numbers of vessels to a foreign flag. Since the close of the war there has been more activity in the building and purchase of ships, and a few years will probably restore the supremacy of American shipping. The following table shows the changes which have taken place, since 1850, in the amount of shipping engaged in our commerce. It has reference to the port of New York alone, but gives the proportions of foreign and American shipping very fairly. AMERICAN. FOREIGN Date. No. Vessels. Tonnage. No. Vessels. Tonnage. 1850, 1851, 1855, 1856, 1861, 1,832 2,353 2,487 2,763 3,034 807,581 1,144,485 1,340,257 1,684,597 1,618,258 1,451 1,490 904 1,098 1,943 446,756 470.567 220,000 386.263 865,447 1862, 1864, 1865, 2,693 1,568 1,430 1,472,989 845,172 774,459 2,713 3,207 3,210 1,079,492 1,416,734 1,473,815 1866, 1,658 972,564 3,234 1,480,372 1867, 1868, 1,084 2,095 721,863 1,064,263 3,592 2,766 2,238,641 1,800,989 The commerce of the United States, both in the exportation and importation of goods and products, has advanced with great rapidity. The following table shows the extraordinary rapidity of its increase, as compared with that of Great Britain and France, the two greatest commercial nations of the world : — 1800, 1819, 1829, 1839, 1849, 1860, 1863, 1865, 1866, 1867, 1868. United States. $31,480,903 64,974,382 72,358,671 121,028,416 145,755,820 400,122,296 331,809,459 336,697,123 565,426,394 462.069,814 476,384,028 NATIONAL EXPORTS. Great Britain. $118,413,084 176,057,005 179,213,115 266,167,900 317,980,125 664,782,635 .709,010,477 1,054,157,880 1,191,528,410 1,129,012,645 1,137,943,315 France. $53,750,816, 83,095,885 121,563,730 188,101,247 207,281,108 424,950,000 420,506,250 760,000,000 817,400,000 782,600,000 695,746,930 The exports from the United States, in 1869, probably considerably exceeded $500,000,000. The exports of a nation it should be re- membered, are but a part of the surplus remaining after the wants of the people are supplied with the article exported. This is particularly the case with all agricultural products, and the amount of these exported bears often a very small proportion to the whole crop. Of cotton, about one-third the yield is consumed at home ; while of bread- stuffs, the export in 1865 was $53,502,511, and the total yield of the year, in twenty- one states and one small territory only, was $360,000,000, or about seven tim.es the whole export. With each year, too, the proportion of manufactured goods, the product of skill bestowed upon the raw material, is increas- ing ; though as yet we are not so far free as we should be from the use of foreign manu- factured products; and the many duties which it has been found necessary to impose upon foreign manufactures, so far from diminishing their consumption, have seemed to increase it. The importations of 1 866, at a gold valuation, were $43*7,640,354, equal to over $650,000,000 in currency, larger than in any previous year of our his- tory, although almost every article imported pays a duty of from thirty-three to fifty per cent, on its prime cost. The imports of 1867 were $412,233,322 in gold value, equal to $577,126,651 in currency; the imports of 1868 were $373,409,448, equal to $522,- 773,227 in currency. The importations of 1869 and 1870 exceeded 400 millions in gold value for each year; those of 1870 be- ing over 440 millions, but the exports of that year were correspondingly large, while the price of gold for the greater part of the year was much lower. The wealth of the country, notwithstanding the war, has in- creased more rapidly than at any previous period of our history, and any valuation which approximates to the truth, in 1870, must show the amount of real and personal estate of the country in that year as exceed- ing twenty-five thousand million dollars, while, from causes which are not far to seek, its future progress must be still more rapid, and its accumulation of national wealth more gigantic. One of the railroad lines to the Pacific has been in operation since May, 1869; two more are stretching rapidly to- wards the shores of the great ocean ; and swift lines of steamships already connect us with China and Japan, and the western coast of South America, and other lines will, with- in one or two years, bring to our shores the Australian and Malaysian trade, and connect us by a Pacific cable with the whole Orient. CENSUS, 1860. THE FOLLOWING TABLE GIVES THE TOTAL POPULATION OP THE UNITED STATES ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OP 1860, DISTINGUISHING FREE FROM SLAVE, SHOWING ALSO THE NUMBER OF STATES, THE RANK OF EACH STATE ACCORDING TO ITS POPULATION AND THE NUMBER OF REPRESENTATIVES TO WHICH IT IS ENTITLED IN CONGRESS, THE TAXABLE VALUATION ACCORDING TO THE LATEST RETURNS, AND THE NUMBER OP MILITIA IN EACH STATE. States. Total free population. Slaves. Eepresen- tation in Congress. Rank as per lation. Valuation. Militia. Maine 619,958 826,072 315,877 1,231,494 174,621 460,670 3,851,563 676,084 2,924,501 2,877,917 754,291 1,687,404 1,370,802 768,485 682,002 172,793 148,642 884,770 52,566 646,183 110,548 1,097,373 72,093 679,965 808,186 615,336 81,885 520,444 854,245 407,551 1,085,590 933,707 859,528 881,710 415,999 28,893 82,060 50,000 11,624 4,889 85,882 1,805 495,826 8,234 828,377 407,185 467,461 63,809 435,473 812,186 479,607 115,619 225,902 287.112 109,065 184,956 5 8 8 '? 4 80 5 28 19 6 13 11 6 5 1 1 3 1 6 1 11 '7 4 7 1 6 4 5 9 8 8 8 4 22 27 28 7 29 24 1 20 2 8 16 4 6 15 19 80 32 26 36 17 83 5 85 12 18 11 81 13 21 14 8 9 10 25 28 88 84 37 89 40 $162,472,914 103,804,826 86,775,213 597,936,995 111,175,174 211,187,683 1,404,907,679 281,333,349 568,770,234 840,800,031 120,362,474 407,477,367 818,204,964 152,537.700 197,223;350 781,100 679,240 181,306,269 1,981,101 255,477,588 80,466,924 730,81 7,658 20.271,000 271,781,101 214,101,20? 837,969,471 22,216,915 201,100,100 878.911,905 161,747,536 274,965,164 884,770,701 266,249,384 53,255,711 188,722,683 73,552 8B 588 23 915 Massachusetts 161,192 17,826 51 630 Ehode Island , Connecticut New York 418,846 81.984 Pennsylvania 850 000 Ohio 279,809 Michigan 109,570 Illinois 257 420 53,918 Wisconsin 51,821 Iowa 110,000 24,990 Kansas 21,000 California 207,730 9,000 46,664 Delaware. . . 9,229 Virginia 143,155 District of Columbia 8,201 North Carolina 79,448 South Carolina 86,072 Georgia 78,699 Florida 12,122 76,662 Louisiana 91,324 Mississippi 86,084 118,047 Kentucky 88,979 71,252 47,450 Texas 19,766 Nebraska New Mexico Utah Dakotah Total 27,678,271 4,002,996 234 $9,312,404,850 8,808,811 It will be observed that the figures for the total population do not quite agree with those on page 160, for the year 1860. This arises from the fact that after that table was printed a revision took place in the official tables. The column of valuations, here given, is that of the several States, each for its own taxation purposes, and each on its own peculiar basis. The figures do not, therefore, give relative values between the States, and are very far below the actual values, while large amounts of real and per- sonal estates are, for one cause or another, exempted from taxation. PRINCIPAL CITIES OP THE UNITED STATES, INCLUDING ONLY THOSE WITH A POPU- LATION OP OVER 50,000 IN 1860. Name. 1790. 1800. 1810. 1820. 1880. 1840. 1850. 1860. New York 88,181 18'638 18,503 42,520 60,489 8,298 24,027 26,614 70,287 750 8^210 96,873 4,402 82,250 46,555 96.664 2,640 iJsT 17^242 1,508 8,208 123,706 7,175 43,298 62,788 108,116 9,644 4;6l2 6,507 27,196 4,893 2,095 13,247 203,007 12,042 1,620 61,372 80,625 167,188 24,881 10,852 10,953 46,810 6,852 8,658 18,827 812,710 86,283 5,680 93,383 102,813 258,037 46,838 4,479 21,210 17,290 102,193 16,469 18,213 23,864 515,547 96,838 I 80.780 j 136,881 169,054 408,762 115,486 29,963 43,194 88,894 116,375 77,860 42,261 41,000 821,113 Brooklyn 273,825 Williamsburg 177,902 Baltimore 218,412 Philadelphia 568,084 Cincinnati 158,851 Chicago 109,420 70,226 Newark... 72,055 New Orleans 170,766 St. Louis 160,577 81,541 Buffalo Washington 61,400 f/w 3^^. r^^7F^^ "Tx^ifT^ <1U3(0i^ C Gi :r:z in: =. =z z:z: HZ __. __ : :m «0 !:• - -oooifrqi-Or-irHOiOmooirsoo "S o- • • • i-i c4 ' O Co' JC-^ CO n5 lo' l£5 CD O lO -<* CT> 05 Mo 1—1 cocoiO'>*Tt . • •00C0M00C0r-l-^00-<*C0r-l05Or-ICftC0 00 *i— iiocoiooot-ir-comoic*05r-IO-*OOi— ICOOO i-(C<100C0O-*C50iC000'>#00C00il0J:-C<1 r}< lO . . . 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North Caroli South Caroli < 1 .2 '3. J 1 s EH or a i < c o > 1 g is c e .2 M 1 1 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION, STEAM ENGINES, MANUFACTURES, MACHINERY, &c. mPROVEMENTS IN TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION ILLUSTRATED. TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. CHAPTER I. EARLT ROADS— POST ROADS— MACADAM- NATIONAL. Of all the marvels that have marked the present century, those which manifest them- selves in the development of the means of locomotion and transportation are among the most wonderful. With the emancipation of the states from their colonial condition, and the formation of a federal government, a most extraordinary activity seems to have been imparted to the inventive faculties of the American people, and to which side soever we direct our attention, we find that all the great and useful creations of genius take date from that auspicious event. The art of transportation has, as it were, been created. Not that our fathers were not possessed of the means of transportation by land or water, but those means were so im- measurably below those now in use, thatitmay be fairly claimed that a new art has been created. When our fathers landed on these shores, it is easily understood that they found no roads, or carriages, or other means of moving from one place to another. In- deed, the countries they had left were at that time but poorly provided with such means, as compared with what they have at present. The first attempts to exchange the prod- ucts of labor, which mark the nascent com- merce of a people emerging from barba- rism, are developed through manual labor, and the application of the strength of ani- mals in a rude and imperfect way. The peddler with his pack, and progressively his pack-horse, are the instruments of intercourse in an infant society. From village to vil- lage, pathways are formed, wheel -carriages are invented to gather the fruits of harvests, and they wear their own paths upon the sur- face of the soil, and finally the road is con- structed, more or less perfect, as a means of transport between places more or less dis- tant. In such a state of affairs the roads are very imperfect, and the carriages of the rudest description. It is conceivable that the first step from the pack-horse and its pathway, to the two-wheeled cart and a road was a very great advance — nearly as much as from the road to the railway. And this improvement has by no means been of so distant a date as at first we might imagine. Not only is the construction of good roads of very recent date, but up to the present moment a very large portion of the world called civilized is without them. Certain parts of Europe, the French colony of Algiers, and the United States alone possess them. In other words, but little more than one- quarter of the inhabited part of the globe is provided with roads. In China a large part of the internal land transportation is upon human backs. With the exception of one or two important communities, the extensive empire of Russia, with 60,000,000 inhabi- tants, is without roads ; communication is kept up only in the winter, when the ground is frozen, by sledges. Spain is little better off than Russia, and Italy has few of such im- provements. The condition of affairs in this country before the construction of roads is evident to the hardy pioneers of the western fron- tier, and has been at times common to every part of the country. The first settlers on arriving here, it is certain, found no roads, and were not skilled in following an Indian trail. They built their houses upon the summits of hills, as well to avoid the mias- mata of swamps as to get notice of the ap- proach of hostile savages. The connection between these houses was by foot-paths that became horse tracks, and with the progress of events were enlarged into wagon roads. These, ultimately fenced in, became the high- ways, running irregularly over the face of the country, as they were prolonged by settle- ments. The science of road making never guided their direction, nor would farmers EARLY ROADS POST ROADS MACADAM NATIONAL. 173 permit the squareness of their fields to give place to the straightness of roads. These highways are made in the general idea of making the passage of a vehicle between any two given points possible, and various expedients are resorted to, to overcome ob- stacles at the smallest expense. The plough turns up the sides, and the scraper draws the earth to the summit, which is levelled off to be hardened by travel. The reduction of hills or the filling in of swamps is not resorted to in new settlements, but the latter are mostly made passable by laying down logs across the track, and parallel with each other. This {corduroy) road is better than a swamp, but offers so great resistance that a far less load can be drawn over it than over a smooth, level road. The roads of the whole country, encountering these natural difl[iculties, took their character from their location, and transportation in each district was more or less difficult, according to cir- cumstances. The best roads of the day were such as would now nowhere be tol- erated ; as a general thing, the water-courses, so abundant in the country, were the main arteries, and most roads were directed toward these, or in the neighborhood of a large city they converged upon it as a common centre. The number of even these roads at the date of the formation of the government was not large, nor was their quality to be admired. The streams and water-courses were well supplied with small craft, that delivered goods and produce between distant points, but where the route left the water, the transportation became difficult and expen- sive. The war and its success had deeply stirred the public mind, and imparted full activity to the independent genius and en- terprise of the people. Those 3,000,000 of souls occupied, as it were, but a foothold on this immense continent, to the ultimate possession of the whole of which they al- ready looked forward. The means of trans- portation were the first object and desire that presented themselves to thinking men. Steam, as a power of locomotion, was un- known, and the science of road making little developed. Canals, therefore, pre- sented themselves almost simultaneously to leading men in various sections. General Washington had, before he attained his twenty-first year, crossed the mountains and given his careful attention as an engineer to the subject of canals, more particularly the connection of the Chesapeake with the Ohio 11 river. At a subsequent period he received the thanks of the Virginia House for his report on the results of his examination of the valley of the Ohio. And the war had no sooner closed than we find him, in 1784, pre- siding at a commission sitting at Annapolis, on behalf of Maryland and Virginia, to con- sider the improvement of the navigation of the Potomac, which improvement ultimate-) ly, in after years, became a canal to Pittsburg. General Washington, as an engineer, always took an active interest in works of internal improvement. When the Dismal Swamp canal, connecting the Chesapeake, at Nor- folk, Va., with Edenton, Albemarle Sound, North Carolina, a distance of 28 miles, thro ugh the vast Dismal Swamp, was project- ed and executed at the expense of individuals with some government aid, he took some of the stock. One certificate of this stock, originally issued to him for £300, or $1,000, was sold in 1825, at auction, in Alexandria, for $12,100, to Judge Washington. Penn- sylvania, nearly at the same time, appointed commissioners to explore routes for connect- ing the Delaware with the lakes. They reported in favor of the Juniata, partly by canal and partly by river. The result was a charter of the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Company, in 1789, and the Delaware and Schuylkill in the following year, with $400,- 000 capital. In New York the active mind of Gouverneur Morris had already projected, the Erie canal. In Massachusetts, the Mid- dlesex canal, 30 miles, was authorized ini 1789, and navigated in 1804. In South; Carolina the Santee canal was finished ini 1802. These, with many other events, show the activity of the public mind at the date of the birth of the Union, in relation to^ means of transportation. It will be re- membered, however, that the people were then few in number. They were heavily in: debt. Their productions were small and. trade limited. There was no surplus capital to carry out those magnificent ideas, which were in advance of the times. The natural water-courses of the country ran through the finest farms and delivered most of the produce upon noble bays, which were well provided with ships to transport it abroad for sale. This natural traffic absorbed, all the commercial capital of the country,, but it was so profitable that in the course of a few years it supplied accumulations for other objects, and it was left for a few. years later to witness the prosecution of great, en* m TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. terprises. The roads of the country were in a terrible state, however, and since the new constitution^ had empowered Congress to establish post-offices and post-roads for the conveyance of the mails, it became its duty to look to the roads, and this was the first practical bond of union between the states. A systematic connection of every town in the whole thirteen states, by state routes under one organization, completed the means of communication and established passenger routes. The statistics of the post-office afford a very good indication of the progress of that kind of transportation : — MAIL SERVICE. No. of Miles By stages. Sulkies and horses. Steam. Rail. Annual. post offices post roads. Milel. Miles. Miles. Miles. Miles. 1791.. ..: 89 1,905 89,650 756,818 846,468 1811.. . . . 2,403 37,031 2,534,102 3,058,960 5,592,652 1833.. . . . 8,450 115,176 17,693,839 8,531,909 628,737 26,854,485 1859.. . .. 27,977 260,052 23,448,398 27,021,658 4,569,962 27,268,384 86,308,402 1868 . . . . . 26,481 216.928 45,540,587 3,797,560 34,886,178 84,224,325 This table gives the transportation of the mail in the first year of its operation ; in 1811, when steamboats began to run; in 1833, when railroads began to claim a share ; and in the past year, when all these means have been more fully developed in all sec- tions of the country. There are thus three distinct periods of transportation : 1790 to 1810 were 20 years of common roads and sail vessels; from 1810 to 1830 were 20 years of canals and steamboat progress ; and since 1830 there have been 30 years of rail- road progress, which has produced immense results, throwing an entire net-work over the surface of the country between the Atlantic and the Mississippi, and superseding other means of transportation. It is to be ob- served that in the first year of the opera- tions of the post-office department, there were but 1,905 miles of post-roads, and that on these, nine-tenths of the service was on horseback the stage service being very small ; but as the roads were improved up to 1811, the stage service came nearly to equal the horse service. From that date steam began to take the mails that ran on or near water-courses, and subsequently to 1830 the railroads began to compete with the stages on land ; since that time the stage service has increased but six millions, while in the previous 20 years it had increased over fifteen millions of miles. The extension of post routes has been in 70 years, it appears, over 258,000 miles in the whole country, and the federal government has taken an active part in the extension of roads. The most important work of this kind undertaken was the Cumberland or national route across Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois to St. Louis. For this purpose, large annual g^propriations were made by Congress. Other roads in many directions were projected, particularly from Washing- ton to New Orleans ; and in the frontier states, numerous roads were constructed by the troops under the direction of the war department. It was thus that the federal government imitated imperial Rome, which in the days of its power clearly understood that that power was to be maintained only by the rap- id march of its legions. From the '' eternal city," noble causeways ran to the remotest corners of the then world. These were mili- tary routes simply, and intelligence was con- veyed upon them from station to station with great rapidity. On the fall of the empire^ those noble works, instead of being preserv- ed for the uses of commerce, were in a great measure demolished by small states, as a means of preventing invasion. Nevertheless, those Roman roads remained the best roads in England down to the present century. What is called Ermine street connected Lon- don with Carlisle, in Cumberland. Another is known as Watling street. Apart from those old works, the roads of England were no better than those of this country up to the present century. In this respect there is great diffiBrence between the works of the Romans and those of the United States. Those old Roman roads had no competitors. During 1,400 years they continued the best means of conveyance. The United States roads, on the other hand, were hardly done before the inventive spirit of the age set up a successful rival in the giant railway, which has become the trunk road. The French government, under the empire, saw the necessity of roads, and began a system for Europe. The noble way over the Sim- plon was the first of these. With the fall of the empire that system became confined to France, but has since been vigorously pushed — $20,000,000 per annum was ex- pended for many years in their construction. EARLY ROADS POST ROADS MACADAM NATIONAL. 175 There were in 1815, 3,000 leagues of ** roy- al" roads, and these had increased to 10,000 in 1850. 2,000 leagues of departmental, or county roads had, in the same time, increas- ed to 12,100, and town roads were extended by 15,000 leagues. These extended means of communication have imparted to French prosperity much of its strength. In the United States the impulse given to road building by the federal government was taken up by the several states, if not direct- ly at the public expense, yet by laws which compel inhabitants to work on the local roads. These regulations are different in different states. The essential features of all the laws are nearly the same as in the state of New York, where the directing power is in ** commissioners of highways," who are chosen in each town. Under these over- seers are also chosen. The commissioners direct as to the grade of the road, general shape, drainage, etc. The overseers sum- mon the persons who are to work, see that they do actually work, collect fines and com- mutation money. Every person owning land, and every male over twenty-one years, is as- sessed to work. The whole number of days' work shall be at least three times the num- ber of inhabitants in each town. Under this system the roads are never very good. The commissioners work gratuitously, and skill, labor, and time are never to be had for that price. The overseers, being changed every year, are never experienced in the undertak- ing. The men they summon go to it as a half holiday, and the work the overseer sets them at is pretty sure to be that which most bene- fits his own place. The money subscribed is not expended in the best manner. These are all circumstances which do not favor the construction of such roads as will greatly reduce the cost of transportation. In the laying out of the road in this way, a passa- ble track is the most aimed at. To admit vehicles, the track must be cleared of wood by the ax-men, swamps must be overlaid with materials, rivers bridged, and the route laid around hills in order to avoid the difficulties of ascent. These are the main points to make a road practica- ble. It is very soon discovered that trans- portation on a bad road is much more ex- pensive than on a good, and efforts are ac- cordingly made by the most enterprising to improve the bad roads. The first step is to make the roads in such a manner as to ac- commodate the greatest number of people, and at the same time allow the largest loads to be drawn by horses. The better the road the larger will be the load that a team, or two horses, can draw at a given speed, and of course, the cheaper the transportation. It is to be understood, however, that the road must be equally good for the whole distance that a load is to be drawn, since if there is a space where great difficulties are to be en- countered, the load must be gauged to meet that difficulty, no matter how good may be the remainder of the road. If a highroad leading through one township is not kept up, it neutralizes the public spirit of those ad- joining ; hence the necessity of a general system to insure continuous cheap transpor- tation. To effect this, science has devoted its attention, but with little effect in the man- ner that country roads are made and kept in repair. The requisites of a road are: 1st, straightness, because straight lines are the shortest ; 2d, it should be as level as possible, because every ascent causes a loss of power. Thus, if a horse draws on an or- dinary level road two tons, and comes to an ascent of one foot in every twenty, he can- not ascend, because, in addition to the draught, he must lift up 200 pounds, or one- twentieth of the whole weight through the whole height. To make the road level, and save this labor and expense, the road must wind round the hill. There is little lost by this, because generally it is no further round than over. To prove this, cut an egg in half longitudinally, and set it upon the table ; the line which goes round the base is the same as that which goes over the top. The half of an apple or any similar body will give the same result. Even if it were longer, it is better to go round, since the horse can do the last and not the other. The road should never be less than a rod wide, to allow two vehicles to pass. The surface of the road must be as smooth and hard as possible, in order to overcome as much as possible the resistance offered by sinking in, which is very serious, because the depression creates little hills before the wheels. Thus, if a wheel four feet in diameter sinks in one inch, to overcome the resistance thus offered one-seventh of the load would require to be lifted up over it. The harder the road, the less the resistance from this source. The greater the number of stones, hard substan- ces, and inequalities there are to be encoun- tered, the greater the resistance from colli- sion. The resistance of friction is propor- 176 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION^. tional to the roughness of the road, and the extremes of this may be illustrated by a car- riage wheel on gravel and a rail wheel. The loss of power on a road, or in other words, the cost of transportation, is increased in proportion to the increase of these resist- ances, and inversely as they are diminished. To overcome them many improvements have been gradually adopted, such as earth, gravel, broken stone, stone pavements, wood, and railroads. In marshy forests charcoal roads are made. Timber from 6 to 18 inches thick is cut, 24 feet long, and piled up lengthwise in the centre of the road in such a manner that the pile will be about 12 feet high. This is cov- ered with earth, taken from ditches on either side. When the wood is charred, the coal is raked down to the width of 10 feet, with a depth of two feet in the centre and one at the side. Such a road becomes very compact, and free from dust. Such a one in Michigan cost 1660 per mile. In the older states mostly plank roads were at one time favorites, and many hun- dreds of miles were constructed at a cost of $1,250 per mile. This plan has been gen- erally abandoned. The roads not kept up are a nuisance, and many have been com- plained of, and removed as such. Gravel roads have sometimes been made with the gravel from the shores of rivers, but the resistance oflFered by these roads is con- siderable. The modes of road making here alluded to, are those which are prevalent mostly in the country districts, and where the work is performed as a tax. These answer for cross roads; but the great thoroughfares were taken in hand either by the state or by au- thorized companies. Turnpike companies were chartered by most of the states, with the intention that they should construct roads having all the requisites of the best routes, and they were authorized to make a charge to those who use them. These, like most corporations, were subject to abuse ; and the people were com- pelled to pay tolls when they had gained noth- ing in the way of easier transportation. New England, New York, Pennsylvania, and other states, authorized a number of companies which answered a purpose before railroads. The New York turnpike laws enact that ve- hicles having tires six inches wide shall pay half tolls, those with nii^e inches, one quar- ter, and those 12 inches, none at all. These enactments were designed to encourage the use of broad tires, as being less destructive to roads, but where the road is well made, as on the Macadam plan, the breadth of the tire has no effect ; on the other hand, the horses' feet do the most damage. It has been calculated that a set of tires will, in average weather, on a macadamized road, run 2,700 miles, but that a set of shoes will bear only 200 miles travel. The Macadam road, invented by a Scotch gentleman of that name, was introduced in 1820. The principle is simply that stones broken into angular fragments not over a certain size, say that of a pigeon's egg, will, under the pressure of wheels, combine into a compact mass, excluding all water, and, therefore, not subject to the action of frost, and be as solid as the original stone. These have proved to be the best roads, an- swering most of the conditions, and, there- fore, allowing of transportation at the small- est cost. Good, well-made pavements, as used in cities, are better, since they give lit- tle resistance, and afford a foothold to the horses. In order to understand the differ- ence in value of these roads, it may be re- marked that a machine has been invented called a dynamometer. It resembles a spring balance ; one end is connected with the car- riage, and the other with the horses, and the power they exert is shown by the index. By such an instrument it was determined that, on a gravel and earth road, the resist- ance to draught of one ton was 147 lbs. ; on a Macadam road, 65 lbs. ; on a good pave- ment, 33 lbs. ; and on a rail track, 8 lbs. Whence it appears that a horse can draw three times as much on a Macadam road as on an earth road ; on a pavement, four and a half times as much ; on a railway, eighteen times as much. These figures indicate the gradual advance made in the power of transportation, since the roads, under the action of the state and federal government, and of the enterprising towns and cities, gradually improved from mere wagon ways to well-constructed roads in those sections where land carriage was most used. While individuals, companies, and states thus contributed to the improvement of roads, the federal government entered the field with greater vigor. There were two motives for the construc- tion of roads and internal improvements by the federal government. The first was to facilitate the mails ; and the second was to EARLY ROADS POST ROADS MACADAM NATIONAL. 177 facilitate communication. It was obvious that tlie new and infant states had little means to expend in the construction of roads that were to be more or less for the general benefit. The government, therefore, in organizing new states upon the national territory, made provision for the construc- tion of roads out of the proceeds of the pub- lic lands sold within each state. The gov- ernment everywhere constructed numerous roads, and after the war of 1812, when its finances began to be easy, it employed the French General Bernard and a corps of en- gineers in the construction of fortifications and roads. Among these engineers was Capt. Poussin. This gentleman went back to France, carrying with him the republican ideas here collected. He there propagated them with such effect that he was, in 1848, when the Revolution chased the last Bourbon from the throne, attached to the Paris Na- tional^ the republican newspaper, and be- came, in consequence, ambassador of the provisional government to the United States in 1849. Thus, after the lapse of a quarter of a century, returning to the scene of his early labors. When the state of Ohio was admitted into the Union, there were very few roads there, and the federal government was the chief pro- prietor of the land. It was agreed, therefore, that two per cent, of the proceeds of the land sold should be applied to the making of a road leading to the state. The same condi- tion was made when Indiana, Illinois, Mis- souri, Mississippi, and Alabama were ad- mitted, and the road was commenced. A turnpike road from Baltimore, 170 miles to Wheeling, was laid out, and a similar road from Washington, 150 miles to Cumberland was constructed. From that point the Cum- berland road runs 135 miles to the east bank of the Ohio ; of this distance, 85 miles are in Pennsylvania, 35 in Maryland, and 15 in Vir- ginia. This was extended west 80 miles to Zanesville, and so through the states of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, to St. Louis. The road has cost the government over $3,600,- 000. Its effect upon transportation was very great. Before its construction it re- quired, to go from Baltimore to Wheeling, 8 days. This was reduced to 3 days. The figures were the same for the length of travel from Washington to Wheeling. Its influence upon the country through which it ran was great. Villages multiplied in its neighborhood, and the value of property was much enhanced. The city of Wheeling was particularly influenced by it. In the year 1828 it forwarded to Baltimore over that road 3,500,000 lbs. or 1,750 tons of prod- uce, by over 1,000 wagons. Anticipations were then indulged that a small reduction in the cost of transport would bring 100,000 tons of Ohio produce over the road to Bal- timore. They did not then foresee that the reduction in cost would be brought about only by rails to Baltimore. The Cumberland road by no means monop- olized the attention of Congress, but roads were constructed in most of the states under the war department, and in the new states the army was employed in making them. Some 800 miles were thus made in Arkansas. We may allude to a few of these roads, as that to Mars Hill, Maine ; Detroit to Fort Gra- tiot, Michigan ; do. to Saginaw bay ; do. to Chicago ; Laplaisance bay to the Chicago road; Fort Howard and Fort Crawford; road to Chattahoochee ; canal surveys in Florida ; road to Apalachicola; Pensacola bay to Pittsburg, Miss. ; road from Jackson to Ful- ton, Mississippi ; Memphis to Little Rock ; Green bay to Winnebago. These few names of roads spreading from Maine to Arkan- sas and Florida will give an idea of the ex- tended works of the government, which also embraced removing obstructions of rivers and improving river navigation. A grand system of internal improvements was thus developed, until its growing magnitude made it a political issue, and the whole system came to an end under the Maysville road veto of General Jackson. The principle was adopted by one party, that the federal gov- ernment had no power to construct any but strictly national works, or not any that were entirely within a single state. The system thus came to a violent end, after an expendi- ture of some $30,000,000, but not until rail- roads had begun already to supersede canals and roads. The federal government had thus lent a powerful hand to the extension of highways. The great thoroughfares that it had laid open had facilitated migration and settlement, and wherever these had taken place, local roads multiplied, until we find that in the present year there are 260,052 miles of post-road in the Union. The mails of the government were given out by contract to the highest bidder for four years' service. The whole mail service was divided into sections, north, east, west, and south, each being let for four years, but 178 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. every year one of those fell due. The contractors agreed to deliver the mails on certain routes in a given time, for a certain amount of money. The mail money was generally depended upon for the expenses of running the vehicles, and such passengers as could be carried by the same conveyance afforded a profit. Thus the system for the circulation of letters and newspapers became the machinery for the circulation of the peo- ple. These accommodations were, however, far from being luxurious at a distance from the great cities. In these, indeed, the staging was conducted in a style approaching the splendid. The eastern stages running into Boston, and penetrating into every part of New England, were celebrated for their quality and style, as were those of New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and most other large cities that were the centres of traffic, as well as post service. The dif- ferent "lines" ran such opposition, as re- duced the fare and promoted speed. The danjiy " turn-out" being ready at the hour, well dressed, polite, smart drivers received the "ribbons" with gloved hands, and the *' team" went through with a skill that could get the best time out of the nature of the road. As the traveller receded from the great centres, he found the "teams" worse, and the roads to match. The mails ran fewer times in the week, the vehicle dwindled from the easy coach to the covered spring wagon, to the open wagon without springs, ultimately to the horse, and finally perhaps to a man's back, and the traveller's accommodation diminished in proportion. CHAPTER IL COASTERS— STEAMBOATS— CANALS. In the neighborhood of the water-courses the traveller was better accommodated by the coasting vessels. The early settlements of the country had been, as a matter of course, upon the coast and on the numerous streams with which the country is supplied. The roads had extended back, more or less, into the country from these settlements, where the freights accumulated at the landings, whence they were carried by water for interchange with other towns, or, as the country grew, to be exported abroad. The wagon charge for freight was always so high as to absorb the value of the produce at moderate distances, and travelling was most- ly upon horses, unless water conveyances could be availed of. This was the common mode for long journeys on all the rivers. The following advertisement, from a New York paper early in the present century, gives an idea of the style of travelling in the youth of men now not old. " Sloop Experiment — for passengers ONLY. — ^Elias Bunker informs his friends and the public, that he has commenced running a sloop of about 110 tons burthen, between the cities of Hudson and New York, for the purpose of carrying passengers only. The owners of this vessel, being desirous to ren- der the passage as short, convenient, and agreeable as possible, have not only taken care to furnish her with the best Beds, Bed- ding, Liquors, Provisions, &c., but they have been at very great expense and trouble in procuring materials, and building her on the best construction for sailing, and for the ac- commodation of ladies and gentlemen travel-^ ling on business or for pleasure. " Merchants and others residing in the northern, eastern, or western counties, will find a great convenience in being able to cal- culate (at home) the precise time they can sail from Hudson and New York, without be- ing under the necessity of taking their beds and bedding, and those in New York may so calculate their business as to be certain of comfortable accommodations up the riv- er." ^ This was evidently no common luxury that Capt. Bunker proffered to an admiring pub- lic. They were no longer required to "take up their beds and walk." Ladies and gen- tlemen travelling for pleasure could now be supplied with bedding, as well as other lux- uries, on board a hundred ton sloop, and depend upon the time of her leaving. The wary Elias did not commit himself to the time of her arrival, however. Long experi- ence had made him cautious on that point. However, to be certain of leaving was some- thing, .since the taking of a passage had been only a preliminary step to a voyage. The completing of the freight, the waiting for a wind, and the notification by means of a black man to be on board at an appointed hour, were now to be dispensed with. This was a great blessing, a good way in advance of the navigation 150 years previous, when permission was granted to a sloop to go from New Amsterdam (New York) to Fort Or- ange (Albany), provided she did not carry COASTERS STEAMBOATS CANALS. 179 more than six passengers. This was the mode of reaching most of the large cities. From any point of the eastern coast the best mode of reaching Boston was by the lumber or other coasters. In these the passengers, male and female, were stowed away in a few berths in the cabin, or sprawled around upon the uncarpeted floor. Sometimes these ves- sels, when the freight earnings were eked out by a fair number of passengers, as from Ban- gor, Portland, or other cities, were raised to the dignity of a ''packet," when a few ex- tra berths were decorated with a red bomba- zette frill of rather a scanty style. In the rainy seasons, spring and fall, these were al- most the only modes of travelling. It may be suppossd that passengers were not very abundant. The vessels, however, improved in size and accommodation, and the number of passengers still, even in these railroad days, conveyed by them is, perhaps, as large as ever. The speed of these vessels was not great, and the uncertainty of arrival such as now would by no means suit ideas of busi- ness. In those seasons of the year when the roads were generally good, the stages would make four miles per hour and arrive in fair time. Such arrangements did not permit frequent visits for the purchase of goods, and most business was done fall and spring, when the goods followed the water-courses as far as possible, and then paid from 15 to 30 cents per ton per mile, according to the difficulties of the route. Even the mail charge was from 6J- to 25 cents per single let- ter, or a letter on one piece of paper, being 18^ cents for any distance between 150 and 400 miles — envelopes, of course, were not used. Those charges were continued down to 1845, when the reduction took place. The tonnage employed in the coasting trade had increased from 68,607 in 1789, to 420,362 in 1812. Inasmuch as but little change had taken place in, the speed and build of the vessels, the increase indicates the progress of business. In 18o7 the en- terprising sloop owners who, like Captain Bunker, had conceived the idea of furnish- ed berths for the accommodation of the pub- lic, were struck aghast at the success of Ful- ton's "Clermont" — named after the country seat of Chancellor Livingston — steaming up the river at the rate of four miles an hour un- der all circumstances. The conservative inter- ests were loud in demonstrating the utter ruin that was to overtake river craft, the occupa- tion of boatmen, and, consequently, the na- vy, *'the country's right arm of defence," by means of this great innovator. Never- theless, the spark of genius had kindled the flame of invention, and the public were be- coming absorbed in it. Each new steamer ex- ceeded the previous ones in build and style, and the machinery underwent as rapid im- provement. As usual, however, the public were slow to be convinced. It was admit- ted, when it could no longer be denied, that steam would answer for the river, but it was held to be idle to attempt the Sound naviga- tion in those new-fangled concerns. This problem was decided in the Fulton by Capt. Bunker, jjossibly our enterprising friend of the sloop. The "Hell-gate" passage was, in those days, an object of terror. An Eng- lish frigate had been lost there in the old war, and there were not a few who still held the idea that "the devil only could beat those English who had beat the Dutch." The East lUver rushing up the Sound at par- ticular times of tide pours a tremendous flood between Ward's and Long Islands. The passage narrows to a few yards, and the tide rushes past the "hog's back" and the "grid- iron," turns at right angles, and forms a foaming whirlpool around the " pot-rock,'* which, even with the surface of the water, is fatal to any vessel that touches it. Through that "gate of Hell" the steamer was to pass, and the operation was described by a passenger as follows : — " I remember the long-agitated question, whether steamboats could be made capable of sea navigation, or so constructed as to trav- erse our sounds, bays, and coasts in safety. This question was put to rest by the enter- prise and skill of Capt. Bunker. In the Fulton, constructed, I am told, with a view to crossing the Atlantic, he undertook the navigation of Long Island Sound, an arm of the sea in which the most severe tempests are often encountered. During a season of no extra- ordinary moderation, including the two equi- noctial gales, Capt. B. lost but a single trip. Another doubt remained to be removed. It was supposed impossible to pass the celebrat- ed passage of Hell-gate against the tide, at the strength of the current. This was re- served for Capt. Bunker to remove, and I happened to be on board at the time of the novel and interesting experiment, returning southward from New Hampshire. A num- ber of respectable passengers witnessed the performance. It was in the boat Connecti- cut, built with all the strength to be obtained 180 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATIOJT. and careful workmanship. The machinist (McQueen) was accompanying his engine to prove its powers, with careful and ingenious assistants, and some of the owners were on board also. The first attempt to pass the point of greatest pressure of the contracted stream was unsuccessful, and the boat was compelled to retreat into an eddy and in- crease her steam. With renovated power the effort was repeated, every man fixed im- movable at his post, the passengers properly stationed in different parts of the boat, the engineers employing their utmost diligence to force the passage. They were again de- feated by the supposed resistless stream, and again retreated, racked, strained, and shiver- ing, from the contest. After a short pause and fresh preparation, it was resolved by the parties concerned to make a third endeavor, and test the strength of the machinery by the greatest trial it could ever be expected to bear. After a severe struggle, in which a weaker vessel would have been disjointed and torn to pieces, the headstrong current yielded to the giant power of steam, and the triumph of art over nature was effected. A few moments of greater breathless anxiety I scarcely ever witnessed. Mechanical sci- ence achieved a victory over elementary force, and overcame an obstacle heretofore deemed in this manner altogether insur- mountable. The courage and perseverance of Capt. B. were so conspicuous on this occasion, that I can never forget the impres- sion made on all present. We have since found it as easy to traverse our sea-board, navigate the Mississippi, and cross the At- lantic, as it was to find America after Colum- bus had broken the egg.''^ To those who now so frequently make that dire passage without knowing' it, this animated description must afford surprise as well as amusement. It is suggestive, not so much of the temerity of the " bold naviga- tors" of that day, as of the feeble nature of the boats then built. The passage, to be sure, has now been deprived of some of its "horrors" by the removal of the pot-rock, which has been broken by gunpowder blasts to a depth which leaves it no longer dangerous. The noble steamers of the pres- ent day pass through at all times of tide, without apparently feeling the current, in- stead of butting at it three times *' strained and shivering." The steamboat, after per- forming this feat, passed up the Connecticut *iver for the first time to Middletown. The North River boats continued to improve, and the time of the Clermont — 36 hours to Albany — was, in 1820, reduced by the Par- agon to 20 hours. In 1823, however, the time from New York to Providence, 200 miles, was 20 hours, and the stage to Boston completed the route, 40 miles, in 6 hours more, making 26 hours. At that date steam- ers were multiplying, on all the Atlantic rivers and bays, on the western rivers and the lakes. In 1819 the first steamer crossed the Atlantic from Savannah, Ga., to England. In 1825 the Chief Justice Marshall reduced the time to Albany to 14 h, 30 ra. The progress in speed may be seen by the following : — 1811, Clermont's time to Albany, 4 ms. per li., 36 he. 1820, Paragon, " " 20 1825, Chief Justice Marshall, " 14.30 1840, Knickerbocker, " 9 33 1860, average time 18 miles per hour, 8 1870, " " 21 " " " 7 With the opening of the Erie canal in 1825, the quantity of goods going and com- ing much increased the demand for trans- portation, and barges in tow of steamers be- gan a new era in that business. That goods could be carried west on the canal, and so by continuous water-courses on the lakes and their affluents, induced more passengers by the same route. In 1841 the improved method of propelling by screw was introdu- ced by the patent of Capt. Ericsson. The iron screw steamer R. F. Stockton, of 72 tons, came from Liverpool under the command of Capt. Crane, and became a tug on the Rari- tan canal. Those steamers now gradually gained ground in public favor. The speed was long not so great as that of the paddle wheels. This has been gradually overcome by improved models and forms of screw, until in the month of October, 1860, two propellers of 100 feet length were launched for the North River trade, and made time 18 miles per hour, being the fastest boats for their length afloat. This class of vessels may ultimately be exclusively used in the European trade. The settlers who had crossed the moun- tains in the early times of the government had located mostly on the great streams, within easy reach of the means of conveying the surplus to points of sale. They were not provided with vessels of a very expensive construction ; and flat boats were the chief means of descending the streams. These vessels, designed only to go down stream, were composed of such material as, after ^ COASTERS — STEAMBOATS — CANALS. 183 the same year a remarkable voyage was pro- jected from Charleston to Green Bay. It was a sloop of six tons, with six passengers, and it reached Rochester in 15 days from Charleston. The passage of a gentleman from Detroit to Washington and back in 1 6 days was regarded as a miracle. The remarkable progress of steam upon the Mississippi may be estimated most readily by a table of the passages at different periods, as follows : — NEW ORLEANS TO ST. LOUIS — 1,300 MILKS. Prior to steam 120 days. 181^, Steamer Enterprise 25 " 1823, " average passages.. 12 " 1826, " General Brown... 9 " ] 2 hours. 1828, " " ... 9 " 4 " 1860, " running time 3 " The time between New Orleans and St. Louis was thus diminished under the various improvements suggested by experience in the form and mode of running steamers. A boat of 350 tons when fitted out will now cost some $50,000, and will carry 500 tons down stream, or 1,500 bales of cotton on deck. 'Twenty years ago the freight of cotton down from Memphis was $2 per bale, and below Natchez $1 per bale. The charge for freight up from New Orleans to Natchez was 75 cts. per 100 lbs. As the business increased, larger boats were built. Of these the Eclipse was the type. She car- ried 1,200 tons, but was too large to pay; and boats are now constructed of a less dimension. The Mississippi boats are large flat-bottomed boats, drawing from 15 to 50 inches of water. The speed depends upon the circumstances of the channel. That of the Memphis, recently built for the St. Louis and Memphis trade, is 18 miles in still water per hour. With light draught and great pressure, a speed equal to 24 miles in still water has been attained. The Al- to ona ran between Alton and St. Louis, 25 miles, in one hour and forty-five minutes, and in one hour down ; average down and up, one hour and twenty-five minutes. Eighteen miles is said to be the time of the western boats. Those rivers flow with gen- tle currents in mostly shallow water; and there have been various changes in the fashion of the boats. The stern-wheel boat, we believe, is peculiar to those rivers. Instead of having two wheels paddling, one on each side, one wheel, 20 feet in diameter, is placed directly at the stern, athwart ships, and by its revolutions pushes the boat ahead. These boats are not remarkable for their speed, but answer in narrow and shallow streams. The regular steamers have their main decks within four or five feet of the water, and the guards overhanging the bow give them the appearance of a New York ferry-boat. The paddle wheels are generally much further aft than in the eastern steamers. The after part of the main deck is devoted to freight. Above the main deck from 10 to 18 feet is the saloon deck, which extends nearly over the whole of the main deck. The saloon is surrounded with state-rooms, which open into it, as well as on to a promenade which goes entirely round the outside of the boat. The saloon is from 150 to 250 feet long. Above this deck is a promenade deck, upon which is a long tier of state-rooms, and this, in its turn, is surmounted by another prome- nade deck, which has the pilot-house at its front, and which is usually 50 feet from the water. But formerly, when there was no restraint upon reckless steam pressure, or the explosive qualities of the boiler, its height, as well as that of the decks, was very uncertain. The "crack boats" are now built from 300 to 400 feet, with 36 to 40 feet beam, eight feet hold, and draught of water, light two feet, and loaded four feet. These steamers are now free from those reckless races which formerly so endangered life, when the safety-valve was fastened down, the furnace stuffed with tar and pitch, and the captain, rifle in hand, ready to shoot down the pilot of the opposing boat at the critical moment when the least devia- tion in steering would lose him the race. Those barbarous times have passed with the frontier manners of the passengers. Their sporting, drinking, gambling, fighting, have given place to business, temperance, pm- dence, and refinement, while wealth rolls up in the cities as a result of the speedy and cheapened transportation which the steam- ers have effected. The increase of steam tonnage on those waters, has bpen as follows : — 1842 1851 1860 1868 New Orleans 28,153 34,736 "70,072 52,025 St. Louis 14,725 31,834 55,515 86,135 Cincinnati 12,025 24,709 23,136 69,311 Pittsburg 10,107 16,943 42,474 53,762 Louisville 4,618 15,181 29,037 28,106 Nashville 3,810 3,578 5,268 .. Wheeling 2,595 7,191 11,545 20,71*7 Vicksburg 938 .. 2,396 Memphis 450 6, 143 13,413 Galena and above 5,849 25,798 Total tons.. 76,033 135,560 249,0^9 351,671 184 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. It is a matter of course that when the speed of these vessels has increased in the manner indicated, their efficiency for traffic has progressed in the same ratio. In the 25 days that were formerly required to go from New Orleans to St. Louis, a steamer of the present day will make eight passages, and will carry more freight. Hence, the number of tons does not indicate the growth of the trade. If the number of tons is three times greater, the business is 30 times larger. The effect of the great reduction in the freight on goods may be illustrated by a single example. Thus, in 1815 cotton cloth was 30 cts. per yard, and 100 yards weighed 25 lbs., which would consequently be worth $30. The transportation of this at that time from New Orleans to St. Louis would cost $5, or 1 7 per cent, of the cost. The same quantity of cloth is now worth $9.00, and the transportation from New Orleans to St. Louis 40 cts., or 4i per cent, of the cost. These figures speak of the greater money value realized for products, and the ^ increased quantities of merchandise pro- cured for that money value. The war of 1812, by interrupting trade on the Atlantic, had induced a large migration to the west, when steam was opportunely developed to facilitate trade and traffic at the same time. The return of peace found a large population west of the mountains in the full tide of prosperity, and in the Atlan- tic states great excitement in regard to steam, with multiplying manufactures, which sought a market in the growing west. Under such circumstances the old canal projects for opening up the communication were revived in full force, the more so that the war had nearly destroyed the usual water communica- tion. Instead of transporting merchandise in sloops and schooners along the coast, now no longer safe from the enemy, recourse was had to wagons over roads not the best in the world. This was necessarily very slow and costly. The traffic between New York and^ Philadelphia, for instance, was carried on in a Conestoga wagon, drawn by four horses, and that which covered the distance of 90 miles in three days was known as "the flying machine," and the value of goods at either end of the round showed great fluctuations, enhanced by the expense. This extra expense for the whole coast alone, it was asserted, would have paid the whole cost of a system of internal navigation from Maine to Georgia. It was then that the enterprises to which the great minds of the Revolution had given birth at the peace of 1783 began to be realized, and two objects were sought, viz. : a safe inland water com- munication along the whole Atlantic border, to operate in case of war, and another was to connect the waters of the west with the east, and the public began to regard with more favor the project of uniting the lakes to the Hudson river. Mr. Morris, who had suggested it at the close of the Revolu- tion, wrote an able report in its favor in 1812, when the war gave new interest to it. The undertaking was formidable, and New York applied to the federal government and other states for aid, but her application was met with jeers and ridicule. The result was the determination of the state to under- take it alone, when the return of peace allowed of more facility for its execution ; accordingly, on the 4th of July, 1817, the Erie canal was commenced with great cere- mony, Grovernor De Witt Clinton turning the first earth, and it was completed Octo- ber, 1825. The event was celebrated with the greatest pomp along the whole line, and in the city of New York. The canal is 363 miles long, 40 feet wide at top, 4 feet deep, and the capacity of boats, 80 tons. The construction cost $7,143,789, or $19,679 per mile. This immense work gave the long- wished-for communication between the great lakes and the tide waters of the Atlantic. In the same year, viz., October, 1817, a canal connecting the waters of Lake Champlain with the Erie canal some miles from Albany was commenced. This Erie and Lake Cham- plain or Northern canal is 63 miles long, and was completed at the close of 1823, at a cost of $1,257,604, or $19,962 permile. The Erie canal proved to be the most successful work of the kind in the world, and within 10 years discharged in full the debt created for its construction. The great success of the work not only gave an impulse to canal building in other states, but induced the state of New York to embark in new under- takings of the same nature, which have not proved so successfuj. These were what are called the lateral canals, draining the coun- try on either side, into the grand canal. The Oswego canal runs 38 miles from Lake Ontario to the Erie canal, at Syracuse. It cost $55,437, and was finished in 1838. The Cayuga and Seneca lake runs 23 miles from those lakes to the Erie canal at Mon- COASTERS — STEAMBOATS CANALS. 185 tezuma, and was finished in 1829, at a cost of $237,000. The Chemung canal, connect- ing the Chemung river with Seneca lake, 39 miles, was finished in 1838, at a cost of $316,000. The Crooked Lake canal, 8 miles, was finished in 1836, for $120,000. The Chenango connects the Susquehanna at Binghamton with the Erie canal at Utica, 96 miles, and was finished in 1837, at a cost of $2,417,000. These canals never paid their expenses, and became a burden upon the revenues of the Erie. There are also in New York, the Genesee Valley canal, 108 miles ; Black River and feeder, 87 miles ; the Delaware and Hudson, 83 miles; and the Oneida, 8 miles. The great success of the Erie, as we have said, roused the emulation of other states, and during the five years succeeding the opening of the Erie the air was filled with canal projects, only to name which would occupy much space. We may mention some of the most extraordinary, however : a canal from Boston to Narragansett bay ; Long Island to Canada, via the Connecticut river ; Boston to the Connecticut river ; a canal over Cape Cod ; Providence to Worcester ; a ship canal across Central America. These projects only indicate the extraordinary ac- tivity that the Erie success had imparted to the public mind. Those which were evidently the most needed for present and future com- merce, were immediately undertaken. The Chesapeake and Ohio, to connect the waters that the name designates ; the Ohio canal, to connect Lake Erie with the Ohio river ; the Farmington canal, in Connecticut, afterward used for a railroad site ; the Chesapeake and Delaware, to connect those waters, were all ready, and broke ground July 4, 1825, three months before the Erie was finally completed. These works, with many others, which we shall take up in their order, were pushed to completion, under various diffi- culties, inasmuch as that they required a large amount of money, but they had an immense influence upon traffic, and called into requisition an amount of engineering skill which had never before been demanded in the country, and various success has attend- ed the construction. The object of a canal is, of course, to float boats that contain merchandise, between two points, in order to reduce the expense of the transportation. The canal is therefore constructed with some regard to the amount of business that will be required of it. The channel must be excavated on the level soil, carried over gaps and rivers by embankments that will hold the water, and it must be fed by abundant streams. The channel is excavated with the two sides sloping at the same angle, which varies with the nature of the soil. The base of the slope is commonly to the height as 5 to 4. The bottom of the canal is generally the breadth of two boats upon the deck, in order that they may pass. The depth of water in the canal should be at least one foot more than the draught of the boats. The tow- path is about two feet above the level of the water, and about ten feet wide. When the canal runs through a sandy soil, or one that does not easily retain water, the bottom in "puddled." This process is to mix clay well with gravel and put it on in successive layers of two or three inches thick. When a new layer is put on, the old one is roughed up to make both adhere well. When re- pairs are needed, they are generally done at the time the water is let out for the winter. The bed of the canal is so laid as to give a gentle current to the water. The levels are the distances between the locks, and each level, proceeding downward, has a less elevation than the preceding one. In a hilly country these locks are frequent, and in some cases are continued for a distance, like steps up and down a declivity. Thus the Erie canal, on leaving Lake Erie at Lock- port, descends 60 feet to the Genesee river. To perform this, ten double locks built in masonry are required, but the canal has also one level of 63 miles without a lock. The lock is a chamber built of timber or masonry, as large as possible for the size of the canal. The boats must not exceed what can be admitted to the locks. The top of the lock is above the surface of the water, and its bottom is level with that of the next lower level. Each end of the chamber is closed by heavy swinging doors, which open in the middle against the direc- tion of the current. The doors being a little broader than the lock, they meet in the mid- dle at an angle, and the weight of the water presses them together. When a boat going up the canal comes to a lock, it passes be- tween the open gates, which close behind it. The water is then let in from the upper gates, until the lock being full, the boat floats to the upper level, generally about 10 feet rise, but sometimes 18 feet. It passes out, and another boat being ready to go 186 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION". down takes its place, when, the upper gates being closed, the water is let off below and the boat lowers with it to the lower level. A lock full of water is thus dis- charged. It follows that a large supply of Water must be had to replace what thus passes off, in addition to leakage and evap- oration. The engineer of the Erie canal calculated the loss by leakage was 100 cubic feet per minute. For supply, reser- voirs are often constructed. Canal branches, called feeders, are made to bring water from distant sources. Steam power is also used to raise water to the required level. This is the case with the Illinois and Michigan canal; the waters of Lake Michigan being pumped up to the summit level. In some cases inclined planes are substituted for locks. In these cases the boats run upon trucks, which are then, by the power of steam, dragged up the plane to the higher level. In the Morris canal, of New Jersey, these have a slope of one in 21. These are the general features of all the canals, but the influence they have upon transportation de- pends, of course, in some degree, upon the localities and the capacities of the work. Boats are commonly towed upon a canal by horses. A single horse can draw upon a good road a ton at a speed of 2i or 3 miles per hour, and can draw as easily 70 tons upon a canal at the same speed. The difference in cost is immense. Instead of 24 cents a ton for one mile land carriage, the Erie canal charges 6 mills per ton per mile, or one-fortieth part of the expense. The freights charged are distinct from the state tolls. It is obvious that where the boats are of greater capacity, allowing of a larger quantity to be passed down at the same passage, the cost of transportation is much diminished. Thus the Delaware and Hudson canal had a capacity for 50 ton boats, and coal was carried 108 miles for $1. The enlargement of the canal so as to admit boats of 100 tons reduced the cost 65 cents, but some of the boats carry 148 tons at proportionate rates. "When the routes of the canals of other states threat- ened to affect the business of the New York canal, the reduction of the cost by means of enlargement was the means resorted to to retain the trade, and the enlargement has been prosecuted at great expense. The principle of the enlargement was based upon the fact that as the canal is abundantly supplied with water, the only limit to its capacity would be the time required to pass boats at the locks. It was calculated that 26,000 boats can be locked each way in a season. The old canal boats were about 70 tons, hence the utmost capacity of the canal would be 3,640,000 tons; but by the enlargement the boats were to be of 224 tons burden, hence the tonnage would be 11,648,000 tons, if the quantity moving each way was the same, but the down freight is as four to one of the up, whicli reduces the capacity to 7,230,000 tons. Before the canal was built, the expense of transportation from Buffalo to New York was $100 per ton ! and the time 20 days. A ton of wheat in New York was then worth about $33, hence the transportation was three times the value of the wheat, six times the value of corn, and twelve times the value of oats. As a consequence, the wheat of western New York at that time went down the Susquehanna to Baltimore as the cheap- est and best market, as the lumber of the head waters of that river now goes. When the canal was opened, the freight down was about $14 per ton, more or less, according to the character of the freight. This has gradually been reduced, and in 1850, when the railroads for the first time were allowed to carry freight, it was $3 to $7 from Buffalo to New York. By the enlargement the rates have been reduced to $1.75 per ton between Albany and Buffalo. Since the permission of railroads to carry freight, however,' the business of canals is more con- fined to those heavy freights furnished by the raw produce of the country, lumber par- ticularly. Those coarse and bulky articles that are of low money value as compared with their weight will continue to move up- on canals, but the lighter and more costly, as well as those pressed for time, will be carried exclusively by rails. These latter have some disadvantages, however, as in the case of flour, the motion of the railroad causing it to waste, an objection not urged against canal travel. The total length of the five great lakes is 1,555 miles, and the area 90,000 square miles, and they are estimated to drain an area of 335,515 square miles. That vast tract of waters was a waste as far as transportation went until the year 1797, when the first American schooner was launched. The craft increased to some extent for the small commerce that engaged the settlers when there was no outlet either to the Atlantic COASTERS — STEAMBOATS CANALS. 187 Of to the south. In 1816, however, a steamer was built on Lake Ontario, and in 1819 the Walk-in-the- Water, 340 tons, was launched at Buffalo. The most of the trade, however, consisted in the operations of the Indian traders, carrying westward supplies and trinkets for the trade, and returning with furs and peltries. On the opening of the Erie canal, in 1825, a new state of things presented itself. Western New York threw off its frontier aspect, and put on an air of civilization, since it became a receiver of western produce and exporter of goods. The steam tonnage multiplied to transport the growing produce of the west. In 1822 the Superior was launched, another steamer in 1824, two in 1825, and three in 1826. One of these made the first voyage upon Lake Michigan, in 1826, on a pleasure excursion. It was not until 1832 that business called them thither, and then one reached Chicago, in the employ of the government, to carry supplies for the Black Hawk war. From that time, tonnage has increased as follows : — 1841 1850 I860 1868 Buffalo Creek.... 6,773 25,990 42,640 56,273 Presquelsle 2,813 5,691 1,471 432 Cuyahoga 1,855 6,418 22,579 ) Sandusky . . 360 ^ 16,100 Miami 887 1,745 . . ) Detroit 2,053 16,469 30,381 i .(, o^. Mackinaw 1,746 617 j *'''^'''' Chicago 652 8,151 10,849 Milwaukee . . 2,026 10,939 in 1840, 3,800,000 bushels; and in 185L 12,193,202 bushels, which paid $500,00b freight and charges. The railroads have since interfered to some extent, but the wheat received across the lakes was, in 1860, as follows : — From Ohio 2,856,216 busheK " Indiana 3,219,225 " Michigan 2,117,970 " Illinois 12,195,195 " "Wisconsin 5,4+7,766 » New York 130,667 14,381 58,711 108,243 140,861 The 11 boats running in 1833, carried to and from Buffalo 61,485 passengers, and the fares with the freight amounted to $229,- 212. Those were the years of the great land speculations, and crowds of passengers went west on that errand. Three trips were made a year to the upper lakes. The trips to Chicago from Buffalo occupied 25 days to go and return. In 1841 the time required for a first-class steamer was 10 days from Buffalo to Detroit and back. This was reduced in 1851 to 3 days, and 5 for propellers. In 1834 the lake commerce was controlled by an association, owning 18 boats. This association was kept up to 1841, when the number of boats had increased to 48. The opening of the Ohio canals had poured upon the lakes a large amount of produce. The 500 miles of canal then completed, opened up the grain coun- try to the lakes. In 1835, Ohio exported by the lakes 543,815 bushels of wheat; Total 25,967,039 " The successive opening of the Ohio canals in 1833, the Illinois canal in 1848, and the Indiana canal in 1851, all added constantly to the amount of produce to be transported, and since the last-mentioned date the rail roads have opened new regions of country, and increased the lake trade. It is to be born« in mind that the size of the vessels, their great speed when under way, and the great- er dispatch in loading and unloading by steam, not only for motion, but for labor at the dock, enable the same quantity of ton- nage to do ten times the business that it formerly could do. In the lake trade the sailing vessels and the large canal boats still largely exceed in tonnage the steamers, there being 550,000 tons of the former to 141,000 of the latter. The side or paddle wheel steamers have, since 1855, been giving place to the propellers, and the latter are now generally preferred. In 1843 the first lake propeller, the Hercules, was launched at Cleveland, 275 tons, the screw of Erics- son's patent. In 1851 the propellers had increased to 52, with a tonnage amounting to 15,729. In 1860 there were 118, tonnage 55,657. These boats had, at first, far less speed than the paddles, but they have gained in public opinion, not only upon the lakes, but in the Atlantic bays and rivers, until re- cent improvements have made them equal to the paddle-wheels in speed. These vessels have already monopolized the European, as well as the internal trade. Previous to the opening of the Erie canal, in 1825, the commerce of the lakes was nec- essarily local, since there were no markets east or west. The produce raised in the coun- try bordering the lakes descended the streams that ran into them, and found interchange with other lake ports. The opening of the canal immediately gave an eastern current to produce of all descriptions, and much had ac- 188 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. cumulated in anticipation of the event, and goods returned in great quantities. In the month of May, 1825, 837 boats, carrying 4,122 tons of goods, left Albany for Buffalo, paying $22,000 tolls. The lumber from western New York and the lake borders being now marketable where before it was valueless, a motive for clearing land was imparted, and the new canal received on its bosom from all sections of the lake shore the lumber brought by multiply- ing vessels. The lumber that found tide water before had been that which in south- ern New York and in Pennsylvania skirted the natural water-courses, and being cut and hauled, was rafted down to Philadelphia and Baltimore. The New England streams de- livered the lumber in the same manner. The opening of the canal brought into com- petition the vast and hitherto untouched resources of the west, and the same remark applies to all farm produce. The farmers of New England were undersold at their own do»rs, by produce from western New York. The potatoes that had been quick of sale at 75 cents, were supplanted by the best "che- nangos" at 37^ cents, and the competition Was felt in corn, flour, and most articles. The effect of this was to turn the attention of that hard-working and thrifty race of men, the farmers of New England, to the western country, where the soil was so much more profitable. At that date commenced the interchange of inhabitants, which has drawn off so many New England farmers, replacing them with manufacturers from abroad. In order to show the extent of this operation, we take from the census of 1860 the figures showing the nativities of the whole people of the United States. Thus there were in the whole Union 10,205,902 persons who were born in the New Eng- land and middle states. Of these, 7,731,- 630 lived in the states where they were born. The remainder, 2,474,272, were liv- ing mostly west, but in their place there were living in the New England and middle states 2,030,438 persons who were born in foreign countries. These latter worked in the mills and manufactories, while as many northern persons who had migrated west were agriculturists attracted thither by the fertile lands made available by the means of transportation. The lakes were now con- nected with tide water, but the whole sys- tem of western rivers with a southern course >iad no northern connection. The state of Ohio determined to make the connection, by means of a canal from Portsmouth, on the Ohio, to Cleveland, on Lake Erie. On the 4th July, 1825, the first spade was put into the ground, and in 1833 the first boat passed through from lake to river, 307 miles. The whole interior of Ohio was thus opened to either the northern or the south- ern market ; and the state authorized turn- pikes and other roads to feed the canal, on the borders of which trade grew rapidly. There are several branches of the Ohio canal ; one, the Hocking, goes to Athens, and an- other to Columbus. The highest level of the Ohio canal is 305 feet above the lake, and 499 feet above the Ohio river. Another canal, the Miami, was also commenced in 1825 to connect Cincinnati with Lake Erie. In 1829 it had been opened to Dayton, 85 miles, but it was not completed until 1843, when it connected, 130 miles, with the Wabash canal, which joins Lake Erie at Toledo, making 215 miles from Cincinnati to Lake Erie. All the Ohio canals are as follows : — "Sifes^- cost Ohio canal 340 $4,695,202 69 Miami 85 1,020,000 00 " extension 130 3,667,440 82 Muskingum 92 1,628,028 29 Hocking 56 975,481 01 Wabash and Erie 91 3,009,923 29 Walhonding 25 607,268 99 Total 819 $15,603,345 09 Subsequent additions and slackwater im- provements have made the whole number of miles of canal 996, and the cost over 20 mill- ion dollars. By these canals and others in In- diana, Illinois, and Kentucky, the states east of the Mississippi river have water communi- cation with New York city. The enlarge- ment of these canals to admit steamers of 600 tons will greatly facilitate commerce. The state of Pennsylvania next under- took the great work of forming a connec- tion between the Delaware and the Ohio. The project which had been formed at the close of the last century was now resumed ; and in 1826 a law was passed to construct the work at the expense of the state, and, July 4th, 1826, the first earth was turned at Harrisburg, and in 1834 it was opened for use. The line consisted of a railroad, 82 miles, from Philadelphia to Columbia, cost $3,330,127 ; a canal from Columbia, 172 miles, to HoUidaysburg, cost $4,594,146; COASTERS STEAMBOATS CANALS. 189 a portage railroad across the mountain from Hollidaysburg to Johnstown, 36 miles, cost $1,634,357; and a canal from Johns- town to Pittsburg, 105 miles, cost $2,823,- 192 — making 395 miles, at a cost of $12,- 381,822. Thus the Ohio at Pittsburg was now connected with Philadelphia, by a route much less than from Buffalo to New York. There were seven branch canals made to feed this. The aggregate length was 314 miles, and the cost $6,471,994. Every part of the state was now more or less in communica- tion with the great outlets east and west. There were, besides, three private canals, viz. : the Schuylkill, 108 miles; the Lehigh, 85 miles ; and the Union, 82 miles, which connected the great coal fields with tide water. We have shown that Washington pre- Bided, at the close of the Revolution, at a meeting for the improvement of the Poto- mac. The ideas then suggested ripened into a project for a canal. The cession of a portion of Maryland and of Virginia to fol'm the District of Columbia as a seat of gov- ernment led to the Rational desire to connect it with the west. This was done, as we have seen, by the National or Cumberland road to Wheeling. But in 1 820 the canal from Georgetown to Pittsburg was projected, Congress voting $1,000,000. Washington City issued bonds for a like sum. George- town and Alexandria each subscribed $250,000, Maryland $500,000, and Virginia $250,000, and 6,084 shares of $100 each were taken by individuals, making altogether $3,854,400. As the work was to run through four territories, it required a charter from Con- gress, Maryland, Virginia, and Pennsylvania, and July 4th (Fourth of July is a great day for canals), 1828, John Q. Adams and Charles Carroll turned the first earth. In 1834, 104 miles had been completed. The work was finally carried 191 miles to Cumberland in 1840, at an expense of some $1 6,000,000. It will not probably be carried further, never having answered ex- pectations, although of late it has had busi- ness from the Cumberland coal regions. Thus of the three great projects for con- necting the eastern and western waters, only two were carried out. But, following the example of Ohio, both Indiana and Illinois determined to make a connection across their respective states, between the rivers on the south and the lakes on the north. But they were some years later than Ohio, since 12 they were younger and weaker states. In 1836, under the spur of the speculative fever, Indiana enacted a bill authorizing a system of internal improvements. This embraced the Wabash and Erie canal, to run from Evansville on the Ohio to the Ohio state line, where it was to follow down the valley of the Maumee, taking up the Miami canal in its course, and entering the Erie Lake at Toledo. Second, tke White Water canal, to connect the National or Cumberland road at Cambridge, with Lawrenceburg on the Ohio, 76 miles. Third, the White River canal, to connect Indianapolis with Evansville on the Ohio, 190 miles, and to prolong it from Indianapolis to Peru on the Wabash canal. There were also to be some Macadam roads and turnpikes. These works were to cost $10,000,000. The Wabash canal was begun in 1835, and in 1840, 90 miles were finished. The great revulsion then brought all to a stand, and some ten years elapsed before the work was completed through the aid of a loan obtained on pledge of lands granted by Congress in aid of this work. The state of Illinois undertook a far more extensive system of public improvements. As early as 1810 a project was put forward, under the excitement of Fulton's great suc- cess, to connect New Orleans with Buffalo in 32 days by steam, by way of Chicago. The waters of the Illinois and the lakes were in high floods nearly blended. In 1823 a board of commissioners was appointed to report on the route and the cost. A grant of land was obtained from Congress in 1829 in aid. This was every alternate section of land, 10 miles on each side of the canal, in its whole length. Not until 1835 was an act passed to authorize the canal, in common with many other works, railroads or others, in a general system of internal improvements, which were to cost $12,000,000, and there had been sold of the lands granted by Con- gress $1,395,911. The canal was to connect Chicago, at the foot of Lake Michigan, with the Illinois river, 102 miles. It was prosecuted with more or less vigor until the finances and credit of the state were ruined by the revulsion of 1837-9. The work then lay unfinished until in 1843, by means of a pledge of the unsold lands of the canal, a sum of $1,600,000 was borrowed, and the work completed in 1852. The sales of the land sufiiced to pay off the new loan and some of the arrears. 190 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. tions, and may state their original cost as follows : — We have thus sketched the great mam canal avenues that connect important sec- Miles. Expenditure. Erie canal Hudson river to lakes 363 $7,143,789 Pennsylvania canal , .Delaware and Ohio 395 12,381,822 ©hio " ..Ohio river and Lake Erie 307 4,695,824 • Miami " .. " " " 1*^8 3,750,000 Indiana " .. " " " 379 7,101,000 Illinois " ..Lake Michigan with Illinois river. . .102 8,654,337 I Total 1,'724 $43,726,772 "Width. Feet 40 40 40 40 60 60 No. of Locks. 84 200 152 102 102 2 The financial results of the New York canals may be thus stated in the aggregate of receipts and revenues from the commence- ment of the works to Sept. 30, 1859 : — Eeceipts. Gross tolls $70,565,737 Loans 55,842,462 Other items 20,469,924 Expenditures. Construction $55,106,814 Repairs 16,932,080 Loans and interest 57,028,943 Other items 17,790,286 Total $146,858,123 Total $146,858,123 Notwithstanding material and repeated reduction of tolls on these canals, their rev- enues have steadily increased, amounting in 1869, to $4,161,280.10. With the contem- plated enlargement and the use of steam to propel and tug the canal boats, a new and powerful impulse will be given to the trans- portation of heavy and bulky goods to and from the West. By their construction a vast capital was added to the national wealth, and a great value bestowed upon land not before very marketable. While this has been done by state means, a great number of other canals have been erected, jointly by public aid and private enterprise. The most impor- tant of these was the Delaware and Raritan canal, connecting those two rivers. The work was completed in 1827, shortening the dis- tance 16 miles between Philadelphia and New York, and packet propellers run regularly through it between the two cities. It is also the main source of supply of coal for New York. The state of Virginia early embarked in improvements, particularly in the James river, which is navigable to Richmond for vessels of 120 tons, the tide reaching there; above Richmond a series of short canals in- tended to connect the river with the Kan- awha, where it is navigable 70 miles from its mouth on the Ohio. This project was un- dertaken by the James River and Kanawha Company, and was completed in the form of a canal, 147 miles, at a cost of $5,020,050. There are many other works of public utility in Virginia, under the control of a board of public works, chartered in 1816. There are a number of other canals in several states, as the Blackstone, of Massachusetts ; the Ogee- chee, of South Carolina, connecting Charles- ton with the Santee, cost $650,667, and many other improvements in a number of states. The Morris and Essex canal, of New Jersey, 101 miles, was completed in 1831. It had banking powers connected with it, and of all the public works in the country was the basis of the most stupendous stock speculation. Its Habilities were at one time near $10,000,000, and it was sold out in 1845 for a sum less than $3,000,000; its business is at present prosperous. It is one of the works that were erected to develop the great coal business of Pennsylvania. The discovery of that important mineral takes date about the year 1820, and the canals that were built to bring the coal down may be enumerated as follows : — Schuylkill navigation Pennsylvania 108 Lehigh canaL Susquehanna [][ North Branch ..'.!.. 1. . " '• upper Union * Delaware and Hudson New York. Morris canal '. *. '.'.".New Jersey. enein. liles. Cost Width. Locks. 108 85 41 $2,500,196 4,455,099 897,160 36 120 60 81 40 12 73 94 82 1,590,379 4,500,000 5,000,000 40 8 40 36 99 108 9,100,000 75 18 102 3,612,000 32 29 planes, 22 693 $31,654,834 Total canals g93 The expenditure of large sums of money i struction promoted a local demand for prod- along the routes of these works for their con- 1 uce, and aided in the settlement of the RAILROADS LAND GRANTS —EXTENT AND COST. 191 country through which they ran, and from the improvement of which their future freightings were to be derived, and there is Httle matter of surprise that the first years of their operation should be of large promise. The cost of transporting a ton of merchandise from Buffalo to Albany, which Lad been $100, and the time twenty days, was at once reduced to $20, and the time to eight days. While yet they were being con- structed, however, a new agent of transpor- tation had risen, which was to overshadow their importance, and reduce them to a second rank. The rejoicing for the com- pletion of the Erie had hardly died away, be- fore the locomotive began to throw its shadow on the future. The " astonishing speed" of steamboats and stages was about to dwindle into an intolerable tedium. The capacities of railroads had begun to be dis- cussed, and the discussion rapidly elicited action, which did not cease to extend itself, until the whole country has become covered with rails. When railroads began to be con- structed, however, both vehicles, sailing vessels, and steamers had made considerable progress in speed, and the connections of travel had come to be made with more regard to dispatch. It is amusing to look back at some of the accounts of the wonders of the canals after the opening. Thus, in 1823 it is stated — " Canals ! A sloop, called the Gleaner, has arrived at New York from St. Albans, in the state of Vermont, with a cargo consisting of 1,200 bushels of wheat and other articles. She will carry sixty tons of merchandise, and does not appear to have had any difficulty in passing through the northern canal. It is supposed that she will safely navigate the Hudson, and she is designed as a regular packet between St. Albans and the city of New York. Look at th' mop! An uninter- rupted sloop navigation from one place to the other ! " When the Green Mountain vessel arrived at New York, the veteran artillery were order- ed out, and she was saluted from the battery." In 1824. " Internal Improvement. It is stated in one of the New York papers that a barrel of flour can be transported from Albany to New York, a distance of 150 miles, for 12i cents, and that one individual offers to do it for seven cents." In 1825. "March of Intellect with Power. — It is no fairy tale, that flour, man- ufactured on Lake Erie, has been profitably sold in Newbem, North Carolina, for $5.50 per barrel. This flour was transport,ed from the lake to Albany, through the Grand canal ; thence down the North River to New J York ; and thence, by sea, to Newbern. The cost of transportation from the lakes to New- bern was less than $1.50 per barrel, while that between Raleigh and Newbern (not more than 120 miles) is generally two dollars." I In 1826. "The following, from the Pitts- hurg Gazette, shows the importance of canals. \ Mr. Foster has published in the Greenshurgh ! Gazette a statement furnished him by a merchant of Meadville, showing the amount I which the merchant paid for the transpor- tation of his goods this fall from Philadelphia, hy limy of New York, the canal, and Erie, to the town of Meadville. The whole cost per hundred pounds was $1.20i! JVe are now paying three dollars per hundred for carriage in wagons from Philadelphia to this ' city /" i These extracts afford — in contrastinir not only the routes, but the prices, with those before their use and those which now exist — much room for reflection. It may be re- marked that the Caroline, burnt in the em- ploy of the Canada rebels in 1839, at Schlos- ser, and sent over the falls of Niagara, was built in South Carolina, and had passed up the canals to her destination. CHAPTER HI. RAILROADS— LAN D GR ANTS— EXTENT AND COST. The excitement in relation to canals and ' steamboats was yet at its zenith, when the j air began to be filled with rumors of the j new application of steam to land carriages and to railroads. There were many inven- , tions and patents at home and abroad in re- I lation to carriages propelled upon common roads by steam, but these seem never to have attained much success, although attempts to i perfect them are still made with great perse- verance. On the other hand, the use oi* rail- , roads from small beginnings has reached a I magnitude which overshadows the wildest I imaginings of the most sanguine. In 1 825; ' descriptions came across the water of the great success of the Darlington railroad, ' which was opened to supply London with ' coal, and which had passenger cars moved ' by steam at the rate of seven miles per. hour. 192 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. The most animated controversy sprang up m relation to the possibility of such roads in England, and was shared in to some extent on this side of the Atlantic. With the nat- ional energy of character, the idea had no sooner become disseminated than it was acted upon. The construction of railroads in America is usually ascribed to the emu- lation excited by the success of the Liverpool and Manchester railway. This appears not to have been the case, however, since some of the most important works in this country were projected and commenced before the Liverpool and Manchester road was built. The act of Parliament for the construction of that road was passed in 1826, and the road itself was finished and opened in September, 1830, 31 miles long; but the Massachusetts Quincy road, three miles from Quincy to Ne- ponset, was opened in 1827, and a great celebration was held in consequence. The celebrated Mauch Chunk railroad of Penn- sylvania was begun in 1826, and finished in the following year. On that road t"he horses which draw up the empty coal wagons are sent down on the cars which descend by their own gravity. This contrivance was borrowed by the Mauch Chunk road from the Darlington road, similarly situated, in England. It is to be remarked that both the Quincy and the Mauch Chunk roads were horse roads ; the locomotive was not at first introduced. In 1828, twelve miles of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad were completed, two years before the Manchester road was opened. In the same year, 1828, the South Carolina road, from Charleston to Hamburg, was surveyed, and in Massachusetts the city of Boston voted the construction of a road from that city to the Hudson at Albany. The first portion of that road, however, Boston to Worcester, 44 miles, was not opened until 1835. The second road finish- ed in the United States was the Richmond, Va., road, thirteen miles to Chesterfield, in 1831, and in the same year that running from New Orleans, five miles to Lake Pont- chartrain, was opened. Thus roads were well adopted in public opinion here before the great success of the Manchester road was known, but which gave an undoubted impulse to the fever. During the excitement in relation to "rail" roads, a writer in a Providence paper thus satirized the condition of the Connecticut roads. He claimed the invention of the cheapest " rail" roads, and ; proved it thus: " Only one English engine alone costs $2,000, which sum the whole of our apparatus does not much exceed, as figures will prove ; for 700 good chestnut rails at $3, amounts to only $21, and it ought to be remembered that this is all the expense we are at, and the inference is con- clusive in our favor. We place our rails fifty to the mile by the side of the road, to pry out the wheels when they get stuck, and hoist behind when wanted." The public were, however, no longer to be satisfied with this kind of "rail" road. They em- barked in the new enterprise with such vigor, that in 1836 two hundred companies had been organized, and 1,003^ miles were opened in eleven states. These were highly speculative years, however, and the revulsion brought matters to a stand. It was at once apparent to the commercial mind that if railroads would perform what was promised for them, geographical position was no longer important to a city. In other words, that railroads would bring Boston into as intimate connection with every part of the interior as New York could be. The large water communication that enabled New York by means of steamboats to concentrate trade from all quarters, could not now com- pete with the rails that would confer as great advantages upon Boston. Indeed, Bos- ton had now availed herself of steam power. Up to 1828 she owned no steamers. The Benjamin Franklin, built in that year, was the first, and her steam tonnage is now but 9,998 tons. When she bought her first steamboat, however, she was laying out those railroad connections that she has since push- ed so vigorously, and they have paid an enormous interest, if not directly to the builders, at least to the general interests of the city. It is to be remarked that the national government expended, as we have seen, largely in the construction of highways, the clearing out of rivers, and the improvement of harbors. The people have by individual taxes mostly constructed the earth roads of this country. The canals have, however, with a few exceptions, been state works, built by the proceeds of state loans, with the aid of lands donated by the federal govern- ment. These lands were made marketable and valuable by the action of the canals in aid of which they were granted. The rail- roads of the country have been, as a whole, built on a different plan, viz., by corporations, or chartered companies of individuals. These RAILROADS — LAND GRANTS EXTENT AND COST. 193 associations have not, however, themselves subscribed the whole of the money, probably not more than half, but they have found it to their interest to borrow the money on mort- gage of the works. The great object of the companies has not been so much to derive a direct profit from the investment, as to cause the construction of a highway, which should by its operation increase business, enhance the value of property, and swell the floating capital of the country , by making available con- siderable productions of industry, which before were not marketable, since the influence of a railroad in a new district is perhaps, if not to create, at least to bring into the general stock more capital than is absorbed in its construction. Thus in the last twenty-five years, a thou- sand millions of dollars have been spent in the construction of roads, and yet capital is pro- portionally more abundant now than before this vast expenditure, and land has, in railroad localities, increased by a money value greater than the cost of the roads ! We have seen that before the operation of canals, land transportation was, and is now remote from these works, one cent per mile per hundred. If a barrel of flour is then worth in market fiive dollars, a transportation of 300 miles would cost more than its whole vahie ; but by rail it may be carried from Cincinnati to New York for one dollar. Thus railroads give circulation to all the surplus capital that is created by labor within their circle. It is on this principle that may be explained the immense prosperity that has been seen to at- tend the enormous expenditure for railroads, particularly during the last ten years. The construction of the Massachusetts Western railway, from Boston to the Iludson river, was one of the most important and fi- nancially successful of all the railroads of the country. New York had constructed her great canal, as it were making Albany basin a part of Lake Erie. Boston now grasped the idea of a railroad that should make Al- bany basin with its affluents a part of Boston harbor. It is to be borne in mind, however, that when that road was undertaken, railroad building was a new art ; the mode of laying the track, the form, and even the model of rails were problems. The form of wheels to run on the rails, the mode of setting the car on the wheels, were all unknown com- pared with the knowledge on the subject which the construction of 30,000 miles of roads in this country has since accumulated. The state of knowledge at that time may be seen in the following extract from '* Wood on Railroads" in 1825 : — " Nothing can do more harm to the adop- tion of railroads than the promulgation of such nonsense as that we shall see locomotive engines travelling at the rate of twelve miles per hour." Such was engineering knowledge at the time Boston voted to build a connection 200 miles to Albany. Since that day much has been learned in relation to the characteristics of roads. The great advantage of railroads is that they practically diminish distances between places in proportion to the speed attained. The rapidity of motion and power of traction de- pend upon the diminution of friction. This was sought in common roads, Macadam roads, and canals, but has approached perfection in railroads. The essential attributes are two smooth surfaces for wheels to run on. These being made of iron, are made as narrow as possible to lessen the cost ; and to keep the wheels upon the rails, flanges are placed upon the inner rim of the wheel. The form of the iron rails has undergone many changes, as experience suggested improvements. The mode of laying these has also varied. The building of a railroad includes " the road bed," somewhat like a common road, and the superstructure, which embraces rails, sup- ports, ties, etc. The main operations in the construction of the road bed consist in the " excavations, tunnels, embankments, ballast- ing, bridges, and viaducts." These operations are required to give the necessary levelness and straightness to roads, both of which are requisite, not only as ele- ments of speed, but of economy. The straightest road is the shortest; but when the road is done, the expense of keeping up the earth-work is nearly nothing, while, on the other hand, the annual expense required to keep up the perishable superstructure is very great and proportionate to the length of the road. Hence true economy requires a greater outlay to make the road straight, in order to avoid permanent cause of ex- pense. Common roads may be lengthened to advantage, in order to avoid an ascent. In railroads this is avoided by tunnels through the obstacle when it is too high to excavate at what it would cost to tunnel. This is not, however, the only reason for straightening, since the frequency of curves greatly increases the danger of railroads. RAILROADS LAND GRANTS — EXTENT AND COST. 195 When a car in motion enters upon a curve, it has a tendency to continue its straight course, and this is overcome by the resist- ance of the flanges of the wheel against the rail, and by the firmness of the outer rail. This resistance is always felt in the rocking motion of the cars, and is increased by the shortness of the curve. A pair of wheels is fastened to an axle and turns with it, the outer wheel moving on a curve much faster than the inner one, which would slide, under such circumstances, if both were of the same diameter, sufficiently to make up the differ- ence. This is obviated by making the wheels conical, or of a larger diameter next to the flange than on the outside. The ef- fect of this is that the wheels having some play between the rails, the outer wheel, forced against the rail, runs on a larger di- ameter than the inner one, thus compensat- ing the speed. Further, to overcome the centrifugal force, the outer rail is made higher than the inner one, so that the weight of the car gives it a tendency to slide toward the inner one in opposition to the centrif- ugal force. The excavations in loose earth require to be supported at the sides by re- taining walls, and to be drained by ditches and cross drains. In making a tunnel the centre of the road is set with great accuracy on the sur- face of the ground by an instrument, and shafts are sunk at proper levels along this line. The excavations are then made by " drifts" from shaft to shaft, and to the open ends of the tunnel. The material excavated is raised through the shafts, which serve for ventila- tion when the tunnel is finished. The em- bankments require great care to insure their solidity. When the materials for filling are at hand, they are usually made at their full height at one end, and then temporary rails permit the approach of wagons to be emptied over the head of the embankment. The progress of the work depends upon the speed with which these succeed each other. When the track passes through a country like a wooded swamp, where the materials for filling are not at hand, resort is had to trusses. Piles of a diameter of 15 inches are driven, so as to form lines of the width of the railroad ; transverse ties are fastened across the tops, and, with proper supports, longitudinal timbers are laid across the piles to carry the rails. The tops of embank- ments and the bottoms of excavations are made about two feet below the intended or " formation level" of the road, and have there a convex surface like an ordinary road. This space of two feet is filled up with por- ous material, broken stones, gravel, etc. This is called " ballast," and through it the rains pass freely, and the frosts of winter do not so much affect it. On this " ballast" the sleepers are laid. Many roads are not prop- erly ballasted, and are, therefore, unsafe. Bridges are difficult of construction, and have sometimes been made of iron. This was the case with the Erie railroad, when an accident occurred, because the iron, resting upon stone piers, contracted by the cold so as to drop off its support. When the road bed is complete, the su- perstructure is put on. This is now done by cross sleepers. The best of these are second- growth chestnut, 7 feet long, and 8 by 12 inches. These are laid upon the ballast, rhe iron rails are laid upon these, but in some cases longitudinal timbers are first laid down, and upon these the iron rails are laid. The iron rails have undergone many im- provements. At first, a simple flat iron rail was spiked down to these timbers. These rails would often get loose, and the end ris- ing form a " snake head," and the wheel catching under, throw it up with great force and danger to passengers. These roads were ridiculed as " hoops tacked to a lath." Va- rious forms and weights of rail were adopted as experience directed ; that now the favorite is called the T rail ; the shape is like that letter inverted. There must be a certain breadth of rail for the wheel to run on, and depth for strength. The smallest rails will weigh 36 lbs. to the running yard. The Massachusetts roads use 60 lbs. to the yard ; the New York roads, VO to 75 lbs. to the yard. The rail is not fastened directly to the timber, but is held in chairs, which are spiked to the cross sleepers. The chair is of cast or wrought iron, and will weigh 20 to 30 lbs. They are made in one piece, so as to receive the ends of two rails, which are fastened by wedges of iron or wood, driven between them and the chair, without inter- fering with the longitudinal expansion and contraction of the rails. The proper breadth of rails apart, or the width of the track, has been matter of much discussion. There are many advocates of the "broad gauge" and of the "narrow gauge." The latter is generally 4 ft. 8 in. and the former 6 ft. The Erie railroad is of the broad gauge, and the convenience of the cars is superior to that of the narrow 196 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. roads. It is a more expensive road to build, however. Both plans have their advantages. The majority of roads are, however, built on the narrow gauge. When gauges on long lines are uniform it facilitates the passage of the cars, which would otherwise be inter- rupted. The power on railroads is mostly steam, but horses, stationary engines, and atmos- pheric pressure are sometimes used. The first really successful locomotive was built in 1814, which drew 30 tons 6 miles per hour ; improvements have since been made until VO miles per hour is attained. A Philadelphia engine drew 158 cars, 2,020 feet long, with 1,268 tons coal, 84 miles in 8 hours. The engine weighed 15f tons. The power of an engine depends upon the quantity of steam it can generate in a given time. Each revolution of the wheels corresponds to a double stroke of each piston, or four cylin- derfuls of steam. The utmost heating surface is therefore required, and this is obtained by tubular boilers. Wheels, 7 feet in diameter, pass over 22 feet in each complete revolu- tion. To go 25 miles per hour, therefore, they must revolve five times in a second, and each piston must make 10 strokes in the same time. This minute division of time is accurately made by this ponderous machine. This rapid exhaustion of steam causes a greater demand for fuel in proportion to the speed. The power of an engine to draw loads depends upon the pressure of steam, which is usually 50 to 60 lbs. to the square inch ; but the adhesion of the engine to the rails must be great, otherwise the wheel would slip round. For this reason the wheels were first made with cogs to hold in the rail, but it was found that the weight of the engine was sufficient on level roads. The adhesion of iron upon iron is one-eighth of the weight, but in wet and freezing weath- er it is greatly reduced, and it lessens with the increase of the slope of the road, or ascending grade. Thus, if an engine will draw 389 tons on a level, it will draw but one-fourth of the amount up a grade 50 ft. to the mile. The average cost of locomotive power is not far from 50 cents per mile run, which includes fuel, oil, wages, repairs, wear and tear, etc. These expenses are, of course, lessened by levelness and straightness, since where these are perfect, more is carried for the same money, than on common roads. A great draw-back upon the cheapness of rail transportation is the weight of the rolling stock. The cars and engines usually are to the paying freight as 1 0 to 6. Various means have been proposed to lessen the burden of this expense, but hitherto without much success. It is evident from this slight sketch of the principles of railroad construction that the characteristics of a road, in relation to curves, grades, etc., have much to do with the economy with which it can be run, and its ca- pacity to compete successfully with rival lines. The city of Boston was, as we have said, one of the earliest to understand the advan- tages that were to be drawn from railroads in overcoming the disadvantages of its posi- tion in relation to the west, and the Western railroad has been the instrument by which she made the great states west of New York subservient to her interests. The charter of that road is dated March 15, 1833. The road runs from Worcester, 44 miles west of Boston, to the Massachusetts state line, and thence 38^ miles over the Albany and West Stockbridge railroad, leased and operated by the Western road, into Albany, 200 miles from Boston. The first train of passengers that left Boston was on April 7, 1834, for Davis' Tavern, Newton, to which place the Worcester road was then opened. It was completed to Worcester July 3, 1835. The Western road, in continuation, was opened to Springfield Oct. 1, 1839, ten days before the United States Bank finally failed, and it reached Greenbush Dec. 21, 1841, thus es- tablishing the route from Boston to the Al- bany basin in seven hours. It there con- nects with the New York Central road, which carries the line 229 miles to Roches- ter, whence, by the Lockport division of the Central road, 77 miles, it connects at Suspension bridge with the Great Western Canada road, and thence with the Michigan Central, the Illinois Central, and the Ohio and Mississippi roads to New Orleans. By this route Boston and St. Louis, 1,365 miles distant, are connected in 64 hours. From Buffalo the line connects south of the lakes with all the net-work of Ohio and other roads. Every portion of the country is thus brought into connection with Boston. The Boston and Albany road has a double track for its entire length, of very heavy iron. Its length, including branches, is 241 miles. It crosses the Connecticut at Spring- field by a fine bridge, 1,264 feet long, and has run a track across the Hudson river bridge at Albany, so passengers can go to Chicago or Omaha from Boston without RAILROADS LAND GRANTS EXTENT AND COST. 197 changing cars. The grades on this road in western Massachusetts are very steep for more than 18 miles, ranging from 60 to 80 feet to the mile. For some years after its completion no road in the United States, ex- cept the Pennsylvania and Baltimore and Ohio, had such heavy grades ; now they are surpassed by those of several roads. The cost of the road and equipment was $1 5,750,- 960, but its property, including lands, is now valued at $22,636,550, its shares, in 1870, being held above 140 dollars. Its capital stock outstanding is $14,934,100 at par value, and its outstanding bonds $3,442,520. Its gross earnings, in 1869, were $6,074,605 and the net earnings $1 ,9 1 8,432. The distance between Boston and Albany in a direct line, is about 150 miles, and but for the passage of the Hoosac mountains the railroad pas- sage between the two cities might be short- ened to at least 160 miles by railroads now in progress. To accomplish this, the state has long been engaged in boring a gigantic tunnel through these mountains. The work has cost about seven millions already, but will now probably be completed in 1872, and per- haps sooner, at a cost of not more than three millions more. Boston is also constructing two other routes westward : the Boston, Hart- ford and Erie, running through Blackstone, Willimantic, Hartford, Waterbury, and so westward, crossing the Hudson by a bridge near Fishkill, and joining the Erie railway near Newburgh ; and what is known as the Air Line route, pursuing the same route to Willimantic, and thence to New Haven, crossing the Connecticut at Middletown, and following the New York and New Haven road to N. Y. city. There were already three lines of railroad communication with New York, viz., the Hartford, New Haven and Springfield, the Sound Shore, by way of Stonington and Providence, and the New London, Norwich and Worcester, but neither of these is as short as the Air Line, or as di- rect to the west as the Boston, Hartford and Erie. Boston had in 1835 extended a rail- road to Providence, 41 miles, and in 1843 the Boston and Maine road, extending to Portland, and subsequently to the eastern line of Maine, was opened. Since that time nearly all New England has been gridironed with railroads till almost every township is crossed in one or both directions by them. The 4,912 miles of railway have done much to foster the industry and increase the ma- terial wealth of the eastern states. In New York the question of railroads had been very early discussed. A publica- tion of Colonel Stevens, of Hoboken, in 1812, advocated a railway instead of a canal to the lakes ; but his proposition was op- posed by Chancellor Livingston on grounds which indicate very odd ideas of the nature of the works. The first regular application to the legislature for a railroad charter seems to have been made by Stephen Van Rensselaer and others in 1826, for power to construct one between the Hudson and the Mohawk, and they received the grant for the reason that no railroads were then in the country at all, and that, as the petitioners were willing to make the experiment at their own cost, it was a good opportunity to per- mit it. The surveys for the road were not made until 1830, and the road was opened in September, 1831, and three cars, with twenty passengers in each, were drawn to Schenectady in 46 minutes by an American engine of 3^ tons. Meantime, the charters of the Harlem and the Saratoga and Schen- ectady had been granted. The opening of the Mohawk road caused much excitement. A road from the Hudson to the lakes was agitated, and applications were made to the legislature of 1832 for 49 roads, of which 27 charters were granted, and of these six have been constructed, viz. : the Brooklyn and Jamaica, Hudson and Berkshire, Erie, Rensselaer and Saratoga, Tonawanda, Water- town and Rome. In 1833, six railroads were chartered; of these the Utica and Schenectady, Whitehall and Rutland, and Buffalo and Black Rock were constructed. In 1834, ten railroads were chartered, and of these five were constructed : the Auburn and Syracuse, Buffalo and Niagara Falls, Long Island, Lockport and Niagara, and the Saratoga and Washington. In 1836, 43 railroads were chartered, seven of which were built : the Albany and West Stock- bridge, Attica and Buffalo, Auburn and Roch- ester, Lewiston, Schenectady and Troy, Skan- eateles, and Syracuse and Utica. In 1837, 14 railroads were chartered, but none of them have been constructed. In 1838, the state authorized a loan of its credit to xhe extent of $3,000,000 to the Erie railroad, and of $100,000 to the Catskill and Canajoharie, and of $250,000 to the Ithaca and Owego ; also, $200,000 to the Auburn and Syracuse. In 1839, the Oswego and Syracuse railroad was chartered; and the city of Albany lent $400,000 to the Albany and West Stock- 200 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. bridge road. In 1840, acts were passed in the legislature to loan the credit of the state to the extent of $3,478,000 to six roads, and provision was made for a sinking fund to be paid into the treasury by the railroad com- panies, except the Erie. In 1841, the city of Albany was authorized to invest $350,- 000 in the Albany and West Stockbridge road. The Erie railroad, having defaulted on its interest, was advertised for sale by the comptroller, which did not take place, how- ever. This was not the case with the Ithaca and Owego, which was sold for $4,500, and the Catskill and Canajoharie for $11,600. The loss to the state was $1,026,327. In 1844, the several railroads from Albany to Buffalo were, for the first time, permitted to transport freight on the closing of the canal, by paying the state the same toll as the canal would have paid. In 1846, the Hud- son River and the New York and New Ha- ven were chartered. In 1847, the seven roads making the line from Albany to the lakes were required to lay down an iron rail of 56 lbs. to the yard. They were like- wise authorized to carry freight all the year by paying canal tolls ; and all the railroads were made liable for damages in case of death by neglect of the companies' agents. In 1848, the general railroad law was passed. The law provides, however, that the legisla- ture shall decide whether the " public utility " of the road justifies the taking of private prop- erty. This was removed in 1849. Thus, from 1826 to 1850, 151 charters were grant- ed, and of these 30 have been carried into effect. We observe that the line from Albany to Buffalo was composed of seven distinct companies, finished at different times. Most of these were restricted as to fares. The Mohawk and Hudson — or Al- bany and Schenectady — was not restrained. The others were, as in the following table composing the line now known as the Cen- tral railroad : — Maxi- mum^ . Char- Open- fare -g, g Cost, tered. ed. per c|3 mile. >3 ^ Albany and Schenectady... 1826 1831 .. 17 11,711,412 Utica and Schenectady... .1833 1836 .4 78 4,143 918 Syracuse and Utica 1886 1 839 .4 53 2,490'083 Auburn and Syracuse 1884 1839 .5 26 1,011,000 Auburn and Rochester 1336 1841 .4 78 4,210101 Tonawanda 1882 1842 .4 43^ 1,216 820 Attica and Buflfalo 1886 1842 .8 31i 90fi,'915 Total 327 $15,690,249 These companies were in 1850 allowed to carry freight without the imposition of the canal tolls, and in 1853 were all con- solidated in a single company — the New York Central. When this project of con- solidating was under consideration, the stocks rose rapidly to high premiums, and the prin- ciple of consolidation was to create scrip stock to the amount of the aggregate pre- miums, and divide this "pro rata among the stockholders of all the companies. That scrip, to the amount of about $8,100,000, now figures as a part of the cost of the road. The road has been straightened so that the direct line is only 298 miles from Albany to Buffalo, but the other lines and routes added to it make the whole 594 miles. The capital stock of the company, Sept. 30, 1 818, was $28,- 780,000 and there was an indebtedness of $1 1,526,000, mostly in bonds. The total earn- ings of the road in 1 854, the year of the con- solidation, were $5,91 8,332. From this sum they had risen, in 1857, to $8,027,259, but re- ceded to $6,200,000 in 1 859. From 1 865 to 1868 inclusive, they averaged $14,350,000 per annum. In 1869, a stock dividend of 84 per cent., amounting to nearly $24,000,- 000, was declared, under the plea that the surplus earnings had accumulated and the stock then amounted to nearly 53 million dollars, and was consolidated with the Hud- son river railroad, the united capital of the two being called 75 million dollars, though the actual cost never exceeded 45 millions. The net earnings of the consolidated roads for 1869, were about $7,000,000. Whoever glances at the map of New York will observe that the Erie canal runs mostly through the northern counties, skirting, as it were. Lake Ontario for a considerable dis- tance ; that the lateral canals extend from this toward the southern portion of the state. The Chenango canal connects the Mohawk with the Susquehanna, and the Genesee Val- ley canal extends from the Alleghany river to Lake Ontario. The great southern tier of counties bordering on northern Pennsylvania, after having taken great interest in the con- struction of the canal, were without means of communication with markets, other than by common roads. The face of the country was too rugged to permit of a canal, but in 1825 the state legislature ordered the survey of a state road from Lake Erie to the Hud- son river. Several conventions were held during the four years ending with 1830 in relation to the road. The railroad fever had gained ground meantime, and finally, in 1832, a charter for a railroad was granted, RAILROADS LAND GRANTS EXTENT AND COST. 201 with a capital of $10,000,000. The survey was made by De Witt Clinton, Jr., but the legisslature required that $1,000,000 of the capital should be subscribed before the work was commenced. This was subscribed, and E. Lord chosen president in 1833. A new survey was made at the expense of the state, and the report made on it in 1835, when a reorganization of the company took place, with J. G. King president. The subscrip- tion of capital now reached $2,362,100. The work was commenced by putting 40 miles along the Delaware river under con- tract. The great fire of December, 1835, incapacitated many of the subscribers from paying up, and work was suspended. In January, 1836,' the legislature loaned its credit for $3,000,000, but the stock could not then be negotiated. Some work was done along the line, however, by local sub- scription. In 1840 — Mr. Lord again presi- dent— the loan act was amended so as to be available, and the company purchased its iron. The terms of the loan permitted the state officer to deliver to the com- pany $100,000 of state stock whenever he should have evidence that the company had expended an equal amount ; the state stock not to be sold under par. The company then paid its contractors with time drafts. The receipts for these drafts furnished the evidence of the company's expenditure, on which the state officer issued the stock to the company, which then borrowed on it the money to take up the drafts, and the lenders of the money sold the state stock in the state for what it would bring — some lots as low as 80. The work thus done was in detached lots, as the interest of certain par- ties prompted the expenditure. As soon as the last issue was made by the state the company stopped, and the state assumed the interest on the $3,000,000 issued to it. In 1842 the company assigned, and its af- fairs fluctuated until 1844, when Mr. Loder was elected president. In 1845 the state surrendered its lien of $3,000,000 upon the road, and authorized the individual stock to be cut down one-half by holders giving up two shares and taking one new one. A new subscription of $3,000,000 was obtained, and the work commenced anew. Much of the old work was useless ; and at this day, when the passenger approaches Dunkirk, he sees, stretching out far away to the right, like an immense army of grim warriors, the piles that were driven originally for the road, at great expense, and then abandoned. From the year 1 845 the road began to grow. Start- ing from Piermont, on the North River, 20 miles above the city, it reached Otisville, 62 miles, in October, 1846. The route was altered, and reached Binghamton, 139 miles, in December, 1848, at a cost of $9,- 802,433, allowing $1,458,000 for half the old stock, after the release of the state lien. In June, 1849, 22 miles more to Owego were opened ; in October 36i miles were added to Elmira ; and it finally reached the lake at Dunkirk, May, 1851. This was a single track, and it was found almost impos- sible to work it ; consequently they put a second track under contract on portions of the road. It was now found that the loca- tion of the road at Piermont, to be reached by steamboat, would not answer. The com- pany then made an arrangement with the Paterson and Ramapo road to allow the Erie to come into Jersey City. The Erie railroad being a wide gauge, 6 feet, and the Paterson road 4 feet 8 inches, it became necessary to lay another rail outside the track, to permit the Erie cars to come over that road, and the Erie cars reached Jer- sey City in November, 1853. It is remark- able in relation to this road, that it has de- pended upon the telegraph to such an extent that it could scarcely be operated without it. It gives constant information of the where- abouts of the trains and the condition of the track, so that the superintendent, wherever he may be, keeps up a constant communica- tion with all the stations. The whole length of the road is 460 miles ; 486 miles double track and sidings. The maximum grade of the road is 60 feet to the mile for 8 miles, and there is one of 57 feet to the mile. The cost of the road was greatly enhanced by the mode of raising money for its construction, by a constant series of loans, for which were issued first mortgage bonds, second mort- gage bonds, bonds convertible in stock in 1862, bonds convertible in 1871, income bonds, unsecured bonds, and other debts, for very few of which the face was obtained, many of them being disposed of at a large discount. By these means the debts of the company ran up to $25,260,000, and the cap- ital, $10,000,000, was in February, 1857, by a dividend of 10 per cent, in stock, money alleged to have been earned and sunk in the Long Dock, raised to the sum of $1 1,000,000. This load of debt exceeded the ability of the company, and it went finally into the hands 202 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION". of a receiver. The length of the road is 44 ^ miles, and it has a branch of 19 miles from Chester Junction to Newburgh, making 460 miles. It leases of other companies, 95 miles, consequently operates 560 miles. It had in 1868, 371 locomotives, 187 passenger cars, 300 emigrant and baggage cars, and 5,856 freight cars. The management of the road was never characterized by any marked financial abil- ity, and in August, 1857, in consequence of the great cost of constructing the Bergen tunnel, and other financial blunders, it de- faulted on its interest, and its stock was wiped out. The unsecured bonds and the later mortgages were capitalized into a stock known thenceforth as the Erie railway, and the coupons of the first, second, and third mortgages were extended. Meantime it was doing a fair business, and seemed likely to attain prosperity under its new managers. But it has been its misfortune to be managed by speculators who sought only their own profit, and not the advantage of the stock- holders. For years its chief director gam- bled with its stock in Wall street. Its original stock sold down to $5 or less per share before its reorganization, and the stock of the new organization, which was for some time nearly par, (llOO,) is now, (1870,) sold at 23 or 24 dollars a share. Its cost, Jan- uary 1, 1870, is stated at $42,000,000, much of which was squandered. Its capital in September, 1868, was $46,302,210; its bonded indebtedness, $23,398,800, and its floating debt, $6,745,809. In 1870, its Treasurer, James Fisk, jr., stated that its stocks and bonds were $75,000,000, but its management has been of such a character that but Uttle is known of it. Its gross earn- ings, which, from 1842 to 1859, were not more than $2,500,000 annually, have, from 1865 to 1870, averaged $14,000,000 per annum. Its net 'earnings in 1868 were $3,244,583. It has paid no dividend of late. The Camden and Amboy railroad and Delaware and Raritan Canal Co., of New Jersey, is one of the oldest passenger roads, having been chartered in February, 1830, with the canal privilege. The last is 43 miles from Bordentown to New Brunswick • and the former. South Amboy to Camden! New Jersey, 63 miles. The Camden and Amboy road was opened to Camden in 1834. In 1831 the company gave the state 1,000 shares of stock, and a new act was passed, consolidating the canal and railroad companies ; fares not to exceed $3 between New York and Philadelphia. In the follow- ing year 1,000 shares more were conveyed to the state. In 1837 the road was permit- ted to extend to New Brunswick ; fares lim- ited to 5 cents per mile. In 1842 the transit duties on the road were fixed at ten cents per ton for freight, and one-half of all above $3 charged for passengers. In 1843 a quasi union was effected between this road and the New Jersey railroad, extending from New York to New Brunswick, by which a through line was established. Both roads have been very profitable. The Camden and Amboy is said to have cost $5,563,580, but January 1, 1869, its capital stock was $9,999,969, and its bonded debt $9,865,- 645. The railroad, which is said to have cost $4,719,076, reports $6,250,000 stock, and $850,000 bonds. Each make ten per cent, annual dividends. The New Jersey Central road extends from the foot of Liberty street. New York city, to Easton, on the Delaware ; at Eliza- beth it crosses the New Jersey railroad, and by its close connections with the Pennsylva- nia Central, and the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne and Chicago roads, forms one of the shortest and best through routes to the West. It also connects through the Lehigh Valley and other roads, with the Wyoming coal region. It cost $18,034,675, represented by $15,000,- 000 and $3,034,675 bonds. The great Pennsylvania line of improve- ments, from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, com- menced 4th July, 1826, and finished in March, 1830, comprised 82 miles of railroad from Philadelphia to Columbia, and 36 miles of portage road from Hollidayburg to Johnstown ; this consisted of a series of in- clined planes, which were worked by station- ary engines. This 118 miles of railroad was prolonged by 278 miles of canal, and the cost of the whole to the state was over $12,- 000,000. This broken line was not very well calculated to compete, either with the continuous water service of the Erie canal or the uninterrupted passage of freight on the New York railways. The citizens of Philadelphia felt the need of works better adapted to the growing wants of that great city ; and a new railroad was proposed from Harrisburgto Pittsburg, 250 miles. The route is favorable, except for the mountain division, where the summit is crossed, 2,200 feet above tide water, requiring gradients 95 feet to the mile. These are but little in excess of those RAILROADS LAND GRANTS EXTENT AND COST. 203 of the Massachusetts lines, which are worked to advantage. This work was opened through, November 15, 1832, at a cost of $7,978,000, It proved very successful, and up to Novem- ber, 1855, its profits, over interest on capital, were, in accordance with its charter, credited to construction account, and it has since paid 6 per cent. The state line of public works did not succeed financially, and the state de- termined to sell it. After repeated offerings it was finally purchased by and transferred to the Pennsylvania railroad in 1857 for $7,500,000, which was met by an issue of the 5 per cent, bonds of the company to the state, payable, $100,000 per annum until 1 890, and the balance, $4,300,000, in four equal instalments annually thereafter. When the road took possession of the state works, the canals were found to be in a dilapidated condition, and the railroad needed repairs, which required assessments. The route then became continuous by rail from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, 366 miles. It has 486 miles of double track and sidings. The cost of the road was $29,761,533, but aid granted to other lines which are subsidiary to it, makes its capital, Jan., 1869, $27,040,762, its bonds, $21,266,132, and its floating debt, $3,361,368. A part of the cost is com- posed of $816,050 advanced to the Pitts- burg, Fort Wayne, and Chicago railroad, which prolongs the Pennsylvania road to the latter city. That road was composed of three roads, viz : the Ohio and Pennsylva- nia, the Ohio and Indiana, and the Fort Wayne and Chicago roads. These were con- solidated into one company in 1856, and the line completed from Pittsburg to Chicago in 1859, 468 miles, at a cost of $23,400,985, of which $11,500,000 is capital, and $12,562,- 000 bonds. To assist the completion of this road, the Pennsylvania Railroad Company took up the rails on the 36 miles of portage road, which it had bought of the state, and which was of no use, as it' run parallel to its own road, and gave them to the Pittsburg road to complete its extension from Ply- mouth into Chicago. For this iron and the expense of taking up and moving, the Pitts- burg road gave its first mortgage bonds for $650,000. The business of the Pennsylva- nia road, connecting as it does, Philadelphia with Chicago and the whole net-work of rail- roads between and beyond these cities, is very profitable. Its gross earnings, in 1868, were $17,233,497, and its net earnings $5,372,513. We have stated that a portion of the great Baltimore and Ohio railroad was finished two years before the opening of the Manchester road in England. The company received two charters: one from the state of Mary- land, February, 1827, and the other from the state of Virginia in the following March, with authority to construct a road from Bal- timore to the Ohio river. The capital au- thorized was $5,000,000, and the company entitled to organize on the payment of $1,000,000. The company was so organized in April of the same year, and with the aid of several officers of the United States top- ographical corps, the road was partly located in the same summer. July 4th, ground was broken by Charles Carroll, of Carrollton, and the portion of the road to Ellicott's Mills was put under contract. The capital of the company, at the close of 1828, reached !^4,00(>,000, of which three-fourths was taken by individuals, $500,000 by the city of Bal- timore, and $500,000 by the state of Mary- land. The road was gradually extended to the Point of Rocks in 1832. Here arose an obstacle of right of way. The Chesapeake canal had appropriated the narrow gorge through the mountain, and several years of negotiation elapsed before the difficulty was finally settled by the legislature. In 1833 the Washington branch was chartered, on the condition that at least 25 cents per pas- senger should be paid to the state. The Baltimore and Ohio Company contributed $1,016,800 toward the construction, and it was opened 30 miles to Washington, August 25, 1835. The road had then no locomotives, horse power being used. The company of- fered $4,000 for a locomotive of American manufacture to bum coal. One was invented by Phiaeas Davis and accepted. It ran 15 miles per hour on short curves and 30 miles on a straight line. The rails were flat bars laid on stone foundations, which soon gave way to longitudinal timbers with improved rails. The road reached Harper's Ferry in 1834, and the state subscribed $3,200,000 for the extension to Wheeling. In 1838 the state of Virginia extended the time for con- struction through its territory and subscribed $1,058,420. The road was then completed to Cumberland in 1842, but nothing further was done until 1847. Virginia again ex- tended the time, and in 1849 state bonds granted to the company furnished means for pushing the road to completion in 1853. The city of Baltimore then furnished $5,000,000, which was expended in protecting tunnels, 204 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. double track, etc. There is one tunnel of 4,137 feet, and the length of all the tunnels is 12,804 feet. A charter for the Parkersburg branch was granted in 1851. The work began Decem- ber, 1852, and was completed May 1, 1857. The road was built jointly by the _ city of Baltimore and the Baltimore and Ohio Com- pany. The former gave $1,500,000 first mortgage bonds, and the latter $1,000,000 of its second mortgage bonds, and has since advanced $1,795,326. The road is operated by the Baltimore Company under a contract for five years, at a rent of 40 per cent, of the gross earnings. The capital of the Baltimore Company is $17,802,000, and the funded debt $9,543,- 681. There are three sinking funds opera- ting to redeem these debts, and all amount to about $1,200,000. The total earnings of the main road for 30 years, (1828-58,) were $9,744,351 from passengers, $29,604,970 fromifreight; total, $39,349,321 ; the amount less expenses, was $17,421,250, and the total amount of dividends, $4,589,866. The divi- dends of late have been 8 percent, per annum. This road has been, from the beginning, largely engaged in the coal traffic. From 1840 to 1869 it has delivered in Baltimore 10,501,595 tons of coal. In 1850 it brought 192,806 tons, in 1869, 1,499,676 tons, and if it has the capacity it will doubtless bring more than 2,000,000 tons in 1870. Its pas- senger and general goods transit have, also, been large, and it has not only built up Bal- timore but proved a formidable rival for the western traffic of the Pennsylvania, Erie, and New York Central roads. The Virginia Central railroad, (195 miles,) was originally chartered, in 1836, as the Louisa railroad, with a capital of $300,000, and in 1837 the board of public works was authorized to subscribe on behalf of the state $120,000. In December, 1837, twenty- three miles of the road were opened. It was further extended in the following year, and in 1840 the road reached Gordonsville. Under new privileges, granted in 1848, the work was resumed, and reached Charlottes- ville in May, 1850, but in that year the name of the road was changed to the Virginia Central railroad. There were then seventy miles in operation, and extensions at both ends were proceeded with ; of these, in 1851 twenty-three miles were completed, bringing the road into Richmond. In 1857 the road was opened to Jackson's river, 195 miles, at a cost of $5,362,910, of which $3,- 132,445 was paid up stock, $1,878,493 state aid, and $351,972 floating debt. It was one of the best built roads in the state, and for three years did a good business. During the war it was greatly injured, but in 1866 was thoroughly repaired and put in good running order at a heavy expense. In 1868 the facil- ities which it ofi^red for becoming a trunk road from Norfolk to the west, attracted at- tention, its name was changed to the "Ches- apeake and Ohio Railroad," and northern capital interested in it. Guyandotte, on the Ohio, 347 miles from Richmond, is to be its terminus. By this route Norfolk is but 600 miles from Cincinnati. The road is now running to White Sulphur Springs, 227 miles from Richmond (330 from Norfolk,) and will be completed to Guyandotte, 450 miles from Norfolk, by May, 1871, except a short tract east of the Gauley, where there is a difficult tunnel. The cost to White Sulphur Springs has been about $7,000,000. It is destined to be one of the most important of the rail- roads crossing the Alleghanies. In casting the eye upon a railroad map, the line from Bangor, Maine, to New Orleans, 1,996 miles, is found to be composed of eighteen grand links ; one of the largest of these is that which connects Lynchburg, Va., with Bristol, Tenn., 204 miles. This was called the Virginia and Tennessee. It was opened in 1854. By this route the mails of the government are conveyed from Wash- ington to New Orleans in seventy-five hours. This commanding position of the road is not, however, more advantageous than its local business, which is derived from one of the most fertile districts of Virginia, as well as rich in minerals. The road opened what had been one of the most secluded portions of the central states, and vast resources are there to be developed. The cost of the road is $7,570,627, of which $3,506,300 is capital and $2,452,852 bonded debt. The future of the road is full of promise. The next most important link in this great line is the Orange and Alexandria road, con- necting Alexandria and Lynchburg, 178 miles. This road was completed in 1859; but after the war was repaired and put in excellent order. The cost of railroad branches (149 miles) and equipment was $9,120,000; its stock being only $7,144,057, and its bonds and indebtedness from state aid, $4,916,685. The South Carolina road was one of the RAILROADS LAND GRANTS EXTENT AND COST. 205 first projected in the country. The city of Charleston early saw the advantage and im- portance of the work, which was commenced in 1830, and opened in 1833. Its main trunk extends from Charleston to Hamburg, on the Savannah river, opposite Augusta, Georgia, 136 miles. The track was origin- ally a trestle-work, on which was laid a thin flat rail. Some of the swamps and rivers were crossed at an elevation of fifty feet. On this road the first successful American locomotive was run. It was called the "Best Friend," and was built under the supervision of E. L. Miller, of South Caro- lina. It was introduced by Horatio Allen, and ran in 1830, when there were but eight miles of road out of Charleston. The South Carolina road cost $7,701,338, of which $4,179,475 is capital, and $2,730,463 bond- ed debt. The road owes most of its busi- ness to the transportation of cotton, and it pays ten per cent, regularly. Its stock is above par. The project of connecting Charles- ton with Cincinnati Avas early entertained, and in 1836 a grant was obtained from South Carolina, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Kentucky, for the purpose of construct- ing a road through Columbia, Knoxville, and Danville to Covington, opposite Cincinnati. This enterprise was swamped in 1837 by the crisis, when the road was partially construct- ed to Columbia. There is now a prospect of the consummation of this project, as only three short gaps of not over 150 miles in all remain to be filled, of which two will be built within a year. A more circuitous route by way of Augusta, Atlanta, Dalton, and Nash- ville, has existed for some years. Georgia has more miles of railroad com- pleted, and more in progress, than any other southern state. Atlanta, Macon, Augusta, Savannah, and Millen, are all important rail- road centers. There were, in Jan., 1870, 1,695 miles of completed railway in the state, and 400 miles more in progress. The most important roads are : The Georgia, ex- tending from Atlanta to Augusta, having a length, with its three branches, of 232 miles, and costing $4,156,000 ; the Georgia Central, from Macon to Savannah, 190 miles, costing $4,472,000; the Macon and Augusta, Macon and Brunswick, and Macon and Western, which are severally 62 miles, 174 miles, and 102 miles in length, and together, cost $5,- 079,000 ; the Atlantic and Gulf, with the Florida branch, 283 miles in length, and costing $5,117,910 ; the Western and Atlan- 13 tic, 138 miles in length, from Atlanta to Chattanooga, costing $4,500,000, and the South-western and its branches, 257 miles in length, extending from Macon in different directions south-westward, and costing $4,- 591,548. Several of the unfinished railways are also of considerable importance, espe- cially the Georgia Air Line, from Atlanta toward Richmond, the Brunswick and Alba- ny, and the Athens and Clayton, intended to connect Savannah with Cincinnati. The entire cost of railroads already built in Geor- gia, up to Jan. 1, 1870, was $36,875,553. In Alabama, Louisiana, and Arkansas, their fine rivers, navigable for steamboats, have made railroads almost unnecessary. But whenever they are built, and can obtain a freight of cotton, they are sure to pay. This product is not like corn, or wheat, or even flour, worth one, two, or three cents a pound, but eight, ten, or twelve cents, and can there- fore afford to pay the cost of transportation. Up to the period of the completion of the Union and Central Pacific railroad, the Illi- nois Central railway was the most remarka- ble of American roads in the extent of its line, and its mode of construction,, under a single corporation. In 1837, when the population of the state of Illinois was less than 200,000 souls, and these agri- culturists scattered over the great state, they undertook with singular boldness a system, of internal improvement by canal and railroad, which would involve an expenditure of at least $15,000,000. Among these was the Central: railroad, which was to extend from Cairo, at the junction of theOhioand Mississippi rivers,, longitudinally through the state, to Galena, at its northern extremity on the Mississippi river, making a line of 457^ miles, which should be the base of a triangle of which the great river- formed the other two sides. This road was to^ cross the Illinois river at the commencement of navigation, or where it meets the canal coming from Chicago. Other roads were projected to cross the state, intersecting the Central road. The Central road was undertaken, and about $3,500,000 spent upon it, when bankruptcy overtook the state, and the road rapidly deteriorated. The progress of the work on the canal, with the funds borrow- ed on pledge of the land granted by the federal government, had been of great benefit to the state, and had enabled the federal gov- ernment to sell most of its lands on the canal and great water-courses, in fact, all within reach of market. There remained, TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION, however, some 15,000,000 acres of the rich- est land in the heart of the state, for which there was no sale, because it was not acces- sible to market. Experiencing, however, the great results from the canal grant, which not only laid open great tracts to market, but by local expenditure in construction, brought settlers and money upon the vacant lands, it decided upon a similar grant to the state in aid of the Central railroad. Accord- ingly, in September, 1850, Congress made a grant of lands to the state of Illinois of every alternate section, six sections in wddth, on each side of the road and its branches, and if any land so situated should be taken up, then any vacant land elsewhere might be selected in room of it, within fifteen miles of the line of the road. The same law con- ferred upon the states of Alabama and Mis- sissippi similar grants for the extension of the road from Cairo to Mobile city. In the following February the state of Illinois incorporated the Illinois Central Railroad Company, with a capital of $1,000,000, to be extended to an amount not exceeding the cost of the road. The company on its organization was to pay over to the state treasury $200,000, and receive from the state |the entire grant of lands made by the federal government, together with all that remained of the old Central road, right of way, etc. The company was to have fifty miles com- pleted within two years, under forfeit of the $200,000 deposited, and which was to be re- turned to the company on the completion of the fifty miles within the time. The road was to run from Cairo to the western end of the Illinois canal, and thence branch to Galena on the river, and to Chicago on the lake. The company was to pay to the state annually five per cent, on the gross income of the road. These were the leading items of the grant, and the conditions were all carried out. The location and survey of the route showed the company entitled to 2,595,000 acres of land to be selected by the company. This vast tract of land, amount- ing to an area larger than the whole state of Connecticut, was all to be selected from good farming lands, not an acre of waste in the whole, but all of the richest prairie soil, of the same character as that in the neigh- borhood of St. Louis, which for two hundred years had given to fresh settlers annual crops, without in any degree deteriorating appar- ently. These lands of the company were appropriated, 2,000,000 acres, valued at $18,150,000, as a security for $17,000,000 of construction bonds; 250,000 acres were added to the interest fund to meet any de- ficiency of means from other sources ap- propriated to interest on the construction bonds ; and 345,000 acres were held in reserve, but were finally the basis of$3,000,- 000 " free land bonds," issued and redeemed by conversion into company stock. The 2,000,000 acres were placed in the hands of trustees, who alone have power to give title to purchasers, and who are required, when- ever the funds accumulate to the amount of a bond, to buy and cancel it. No land can be sold, unless bonds to the same amount are cancelled. It was estimated that the bonds thus issued would build the road, and leave the entire work free of cost to the stockholders. It was found requisite, how- ever, to create 170,000 shares, representing $17,000,000 capital. On this instalments have from time to time been called in. The $200,000 deposited with the state was as- sessed $20 on 10,000 shares, and the amount has since been increased to $25,277,270, on which 80 per cent, has been called, making $20,800,000. In April, 1852, $4,000,000 of the 7 per cent, construction bonds were is- sued at par, and the subscribers to this loan had the privilege of subscribing ten shares of stock for each $1,000 bond. The company purchased their iron, 72,000 tons, in 1852, when it was very low, or less than half the price to which it rose soon after, when the railroad fever developed itself. In October, 1852, the whole line was put under contract, in divisions, and 10,000 men were employed at an expense of $3,700,000 per annum, at work along the line, twelve hours per day, stretching a great highway through fertile plains never before opened, conferring value on them, wealth to the farmers, and strength to the state. As the work progressed, it en- countered diflficulties from cholera, and the demand for labor which the growing railroad mania caused. The road was opened in 1854, and its earnings for its first year, 1855, were $1,532,118. It sold of its lands 528,- 863 acres for $5,598,577, and the sales have since reached 1,745,000 acres for over $20,- 000,000, leaving on hand 850,000 acres, much of it very choice land. The railway extends 707 miles, of double track, which has cost for road and equipment, $32,219,- 457. Its financial condition is excellent, In January, 1869, after paying ten per cent, dividends, it had a surplus of over 12 millions. RAILROADS — LAND GRANTS — EXTENT AND COST. 207 It is now building, at an expense of about 110,000,000, a railroad to Sioux city on the Missouri, intended to connect with the Un- ion Pacific, with Yankton, the capital of Dakota, and other points. It had, in Jan- uary, 1869, 170 locomotives, 96 passenger, 39 baggage, mail, and express cars, and 3,817 freight cars. The number of all has since been greatly increased. It has extensive workshops at Chicago, Centralia, Amboy, and other points. It crosses and connects with more thaa 40 lines of railroads, as well as with steamers on the lakes, and the Mis- sissippi, and has elevators and warehouses at Chicago and Dunleith to facilitate the shipment of produce. At Cairo, the southern terminus of the road, the cars make direct connections (by steamer to Columbus, Ky.,) with the Mobile and Ohio railroad for Memphis, Natchez, Vicksburg, New Orleans, and other southern cities. In Chicago the company's facilities for receiving and forwarding freight are un- surpassed. Sleeping cars are run on all its night passenger trains. The land department is the most interest- ing branch of the company. It is divided into three bureaus — the cashier's office, the sales-room, and the contract-room. The whole force employed in it comprises about forty clerks. But to return to the lands of the Illinois Central railroad : they comprise an area covering 4,055 square miles, nearly as large as the territory of the state of Con- necticut, twice as large as • Delaware, more than half as large as Massachusetts, about the same size as the electorate of Hesse-Cas- sel, three-fourths as large as the grand duchy of Baden, and half as large as the grand duchy of Tuscany. The most marvelous result of this great work was manifest in the report of the United States land commissioner. The lands through which the road ran had been offered on an average of 15 years at $1,25 per acre, without finding a buyer. All those lands were withdrawn while the company made its selections. When that was done, the lands were again brought into market, in June, 1852, and these in the next twelve months sold in IlHnois 298,861 acres for cash, at $2.50 per acre, and $2,509,120 for land warrants. The sales were double the quantity sold in all the states in the previous year. The whole interest of the government in Illinois was speedily closed out. For lands which had been valueless to it before the completion of the road, it realized over $9,000,000. This was the eflfect of transpor- tation upon those lands. The first land grants of the government were in aid of canals (included below in the grants for internal improvements.) We give, also, the grants to railroads up to July, 1868:— Grants for internal p ., , State or Corporation, improvement includ- «:aiiroaa ing State canals. *^'^«'"^- Ohio 1,243,001.77 Indiana 1,609,861.61 Illinois 533,283.73 2,595,053.00 Missouri 500,000.00 3,745,060.21 Alabama 500,000.00 3,729,120.00 Mississippi 500,000.00 2,062,240.00 Louisiana 500,000.00 1,578,720.00 Michigan 1,250,000.00 5,327,930.99 Arkansas 500,000.00 4,744,271.63 Florida 500,000.00 2,360,114.00 Iowa. 1,333,079.90 7,331,207.98 Wisconsin 1,183,728.42 5,378,360.50 California 500,000.00 2,060,000.00 Minnesota 500,000.00 7, 783,403.09 Oregon 500,000.00 1,660,000.00 Kansas 500,000.00 7,753,000.00 Nevada 500,000.00 Nebraska 500,000.00 Pacific Railroad . . 124,000,000.00 Wagon Roads. Wisconsin .. 250.000.00 Michigan .. 1,218,613.27 Oregon 1,813,600.00 Total 13,153,155.43 185,390,794.67 The railroad grants to July 1, 1868, it will be seen, amounted to 185,390,795 acres; a territory nearly equal to the whole of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Iowa, and Wisconsin, a vast domain, which, though it puts too large a land monopoly into the hands of these railroad companies, compels them to stimulate immigration, and thus make their lands as well as those of the govern- ment valuable. National land grants have been more successful than those made by the states. The land grant of the federal government to Alabama for the Mobile and Ohio road was to the extent of 1,120,000 acres, and it became the basis of a sinking fund for the aid granted to the states of Tennessee, Missis- sippi, and Alabama. The road extends from Mobile bay, in a line nearly due north, to the mouth of the Ohio river, opposite Cairo, a distance of 504 miles. Thence by the Illinois Central it will connect with Dun- leith, on the upper Mississippi, 928 miles, and also with Chicago and the eastern fines. The road was commenced in 1851, and was nearly completed before the war. It now wants only the 16 or 20 miles between 208 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. Cairo and Columbus, Ky., connected by a ferry on the Mississippi river. This is to be built by the Illinois Central by 1871. The cost of the road and equipment was $17,- 150,167, of which a considerable portion was furnished by state bonds. The Memphis and Charleston railroad connects Memphis, on the Mississippi, with Charleston, by the way of the Nashville and Chattanooga road. This road connects Charleston and Savannah with the leading cities of the Mississippi river. It is 271 miles long, and forms part of the great through line from Washington to New Orleans. Its cost was $9,661,618, of which $5,312,725 is capital, and $3,888,530 bonded debt. The New Orleans, Jackson, and Great Northern road forms the southernmost link of the great chain which stretches 2,000 miles on the Atlantic coast to Bangor, thus connecting cod-fish with sugar, the Maine law with New Orleans rum. The road runs from New Orleans to Canton, Mississippi, 206 miles. It has, as a matter of course, an im- mense through business as well as a large local trafiic. Its cost has been $7,912,607, of which $4,742,158 is capital, and $3,897,- 000 bonded debt. There were completed in January, 1860, the last two links in the great chain of rail- ways from Maine to Louisiana — the first, the last twenty-five miles on the Mississippi Cen- tral, and the second, of sixty-one miles be- tween Lynchburg and Charlottesville, on the Orange and Alexandria railroad, popularly known as the Lynchburg Extension. This route, as will be seen by the following table of distances, is within a fraction of 2,000 miles in length, from Bangor to New Or- leans, of a continuous rail track, with the exception of four short ferries, viz. : the Hud- son river, the Susquehanna, the Potomac, and the James river at Lynchburg, the last two of which will soon be supplied with bridges. From New Orleans to Canton, Miss., by the . New Orleans, Jackson, and Great Northern railway 206 Canton to Grand Junction, Miss., by the Mis- sissippi Central railway 165 Grand Junction to Stephenson, Ala., by the Memphis and Charleston railway 219 .Stephenson to Chattanooga, Tenn., by the Nash- ville and Chattanooga railway 38 Chattanooga to Cleveland, Tenn., by the Cleve- land and Chattanooga railway 29 Cleveland to Knoxville, Tenn., by the East Tennessee and Georgia railway 83 Knoxville to Bristol, Tenn., by the East Ten- nessee and Virginia railway 130 Bristol to Lynchburg, Ya., by the Virginia and Tennessee railway 204 Lynchburg to Alexandria, by the Orange and Alexandria railway 169 Alexandria to Washington, D. C, by the Wash- ington and Alexandria railway 6 Washington to Baltimore, Md., by the Balti- more and Ohio railway 39 Baltimore to Philadelphia, by the Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore railvray 98 Philadelphia to New York, by the Philadelphia and New York railroad line 87 New York to New Haven, Conn., by the New York and New Haven raQway 74 New Haven to Springfield 62 Springfield to Boston, by the Western railway. 100 Boston to Portland, Maine, by the Eastern and Portland, Saco, and Portsmouth railway 107 Portland to Bangor, Me., by the Penobscot and Kennebec, and Androscoggin and Kennebec railways 137 Total 1,953 This vast chain of railways is composed of eighteen independent roads, costing in the aggregate, for 2,394 miles of road, $92, 784,- 084, or nearly one-tenth of the whole rail- way system of the United States, of which 1,953 miles are used in this continuous line. The roads from Washington city to New Orleans, embracing a distance of 1,249 miles, had the contract for the great through mail to New Orleans once a day for several years. It is now divided between the south-western and the western routes. The state of Michigan, in 1836, con- templated the construction of three railroads to cross the state: the Southern, from Monroe to New Buffalo ; the Central, from Detroit to St. Joseph ; and the Northern, from Huron to Grand River. For these roads a state debt of $5,000,000 was contracted ; and, in 1838, 28 miles of the Central road had been put in operation, which was ex- tended to 146 miles, at a cost of $2,238,289, and the Southern road, 68 miles, at a cost of $1,125,590, when the state failed and re- pudiated its debt. As a step toward re^ covery, a bill was passed, at the suggestion of Mr. Charles Butler, of New York, called the " Butler act," by which the state sold the Central road to a Boston company for $2,000,000 of its own bonds, and the South- em road for $5,000,000 to another company. Little was done, however, until 1849, when Mr. Butler and others reorganized the South- ern company, and the road was pushed to completion. As it approached the Indiana line, an old Indiana state charter was pur- RAILROADS LAND GRANTS EXTENT AND COST. 209 chased, enabling the company to carry their work through that state to the Illinois line, whence, under the general law of that state, it was pushed on to Chicago. The dis- tance from Monroe, on Lake Michigan, to Chicago, is 246 miles, and the work was completed for $50,000,000, or $20,000 per mile in running order, the level nature of the country being very favorable to the construction of railroads. The work was eminently successful, but became involved through its connection with lateral jobs, which covered it with liabilities greater than its business, large as it Avas, could carry. In 1857 it became so much embarrassed, as to be obliged to reorganize, and was subse- quently consolidated with the Lake Shore railroad. It has now a length, including one branch, of 519 miles; its cost for road and equipment is set down at $20,900,000, of which $12,125,600 is represented by stock, and $8,876,580 by bonds. Its gross earn- ings for the year ending February, 1869, were $5,024,108, and the net earnings $2,- 046,036. It is now run in close connection with the N. Y. Central railroad, and its stock is about par. It has, for two or three years past, made 8 per cent, dividends. The Michigan Central reached the lake in May, 1849, and was also pushed to com- pletion, going round the foot of Lake Michi- gan, where the Illinois Central put out a hand to meet it. The connection is thus 284 miles, Detroit to Chicago. The cost of this road was $15,951,936. The road was laid with T rail, and was very prosperous. The capital of the company is $11,197,348, and the debt $5,153,489. The road is an important link in the line of connection between Boston and the western country. The state of Tennessee has an important system of railroads extending to all sec- tions of the state. The state guarantees |8,000 per mile for the purchase of iron and equipment, upon the condition that the com- J)anie8 prepare the road-bed and defray the charges of construction. The state retains a lien upon the whole property. The roads have been well built. The state of Missouri had done littfe toward the construction of roads until the session of 1851, when it agreed to lend its aid to two great lines ; the Pacific road, commencing at St. Louis and running across the state, on the south side of the Missouri river, and the Hannibal and St. Joseph road, extending 206 miles across the state from river to river, connecting the two cities named. This last had also a land grant of 600,000 acres, made the basis for $5,000,- 000 of the company's bonds. The state subsequently enlarged its plan, and agreed to issue $24,000,000 of its bonds in aid of the railroads. The panic of 1857 and the war troubles prevented the payment of in- terest on these bonds, either by the railroads or the state, for some years. In 1867, the state resumed payment and the railroads be- gan a new career of prosperity. The most important roads are the Hannibal and St. Joseph, aod branches, 278 miles long; the Pacific of Missouri, 283 miles long, and the Southwest Pacific, 327 miles in length. The state has 1,827 miles of completed road, and 1,450 more in progress. Over $88,000,- 000 have been expended on these roads thus far. The Pacific road has cost $13,- 906,000, of which $7,550,375 is bonded debt. The great railroad bridge over the Mississippi at St. Louis will materially ben- efit the railroad lines. In the following table of the leading rail- roads of all the states, giving the length of roads completed and in progress, and cost of road and equipment, there are many roads that run through several states. These are distributed as far as possible 'pro rata to the states through which they pass. The titles of roads in italics show the land-grant roads. The figures are from returns nearest to January, 1870. 210 RAILROADS — LENGTH — COST. EAILEOADS OF THE UNITED STATES. A Tabular Statement showing the Length and Cost of each Work at the close of the financial year ending nearest to January 1, 1870. (Not including City Passenger Railroads.) Corporate Title, of _LengthJn Mile,, ^^jA^^ft.^ Corporate Title, of Companie,. 1. Androscoggin, . 26.50 Lewiston Branch, , „?„„ 2. AtlanticandStLawrence(GdTrunk.) 81.00 Branch, 1-50 3. Bangor, Oldtown, and Milford, . • 13.00 4. Bangor and Piscataquis, . . • • 40.00 6. Belfast and Moosehead Lake, . • • 34.50 Boston and Maine (N. H. &. Mass.) . 1.26 6. Calais and Baring, »•"" Branches, S-50 7. Dexter and Newport, .,..•• lo.oo 8. European and North American, . • SO-'^ 9. Knox and Lincoln • •. ^°i" 10. Leeds & Farm'gton (leased to Androsc.) 36.50 11. Lewy's Island, 16.50 12. Machiasport, '-"O 13. Maine Central, 1<*'-«1 14. Portland and Kenneheck, . . • Bath Branch, . . . • . * ,* 15. Portland and Ogdensburg (project) 16. Portland and Oxford Central, . . 17. PorUand and Rochester, ._ . . • 18. Portland and Rutland (project) . . 48.00 19. Portland, Saco, and Portsmouth, . . 53.50 Port8moJth,Gt. Falls & Conway (N.H.)3.50 JO. Somerset (project) 34.00 81. Somerset and Kennebec, .... 6.00 S $860,000 63.00 9.50 48.00 28.50 62.00 00 81.00 I 1.50 i 13.00 40.00 15.00 1.26 6.00) 6.50 i 16.00 68.00 36.50 16.50 7.60 109.81 63.00 ! 9.60 i 21,50 62.00 3,259,763 331,845 800,000 300,000 71,987 226,160 320,000 3,500,000 915,000 385,000 120,000 4,212,401 2,020,770 430,000 1,200,000 1,360,184 70,000 800,000 Total, 940.79 672.07 $21,183,110 Stats of New Hampshihb. 1. Ashuelot 23.76 ' Atlantic Je St. Lawrence ( Gd. Trunk.) 5'2.00 S. Boston, Concord, and Montreal, . . 93,54 Boston and Maine ( Mass. and Maine) 37.22 Great Falls Branch, 2.95 8. Cheshire (Mass.) 43.65 4. Concord, - 34.53 5. Concord and Claremont, .... 27.16 6. Contoocook River, 14.64 7. Dover and Winnipiseogee, .... 28.50 S. Eastern, • • 16-55 Fitchburg (Mason Branch, Mass.) . 9.36 9. Manchester and Lawrence, . . . 23.28 10. Manchester and North Weare, . . 19.43 11. Mount Washington, 2.75 Nashua and Lowell (Mass.) . . . 6.22 12. Nashua and Rochester (project) . . 42.00 13. New Hampshire Central (project) . 38.00 14. Northern New Hampshire, . . . 69.20 Bristol Branch, 13.40 15. Portland and Ogdensburg (project) . 16. Portsmouth and Concord, .... 59.00 17. Portsmouth, Gt. Falls ^ Conway (Me.) 22.50 18. Sugar River (project) 20.00 19. SuRivan, 24.70 20. Suncook Valley 16.20 11. White Mountains, 20.78 K. Wilton, 15.43 Worcester and Nashua (Mass.) . . 6.57 ToUl, 785.32 Stati of Vkkm ont. 1. Bennington and Rutland, .... 54.00 Bennington Branch, .... 5.00 8. Connecticut and Passunipsic Rivers, 110.30 Grand Trunk of Canada, .... 30.50 3. Lamoille Valley Junction (project) . Lebanon Springs (Mass. &N.Y.) . . 10.00 4. Missisquoi and Clyde River (project) 6. Montpelier and Wells River (building) 40.00 6. Northern Vt. & L. Champlain (project) 7. Portland and Ogdensburg (project) . • Rensselaer and Saratoga (New York) 35.00 Rutland Branch, 7.00 8. Rutland (late Rutland k Burlington) 119.60 9. Southern Vermont, ....... 8.00 to. Vermont and Canada, 47.00 Burlington Branch, 8.50 Swauton Branch, 10.00 11. Vermont Central, 117.00 Montpelier Branch, 2.00 Vermont and Massachusetts (Mass.) 10.50 12. Vermont Valley, 23.69 13. Woodstock, 13.00 23.76 52.00 93.54 37.22 I 2.95 J 43.65 34.63 27.16 14.64 28.50 16.55 9.36 23.28 19.43 2.75 6.22 2470 16.20 20.70 16.43 6.57 64.00 > 6.00 i 110.30 30.60 10.00 $506,000 2,018,792 2,850,000 2,292,716 2,488,037 1,600,000 698,258 257,000 826,200 525,206 93,600 1,000,000 600,000 100,000 330,680 8,400 350,000 370,006 1,622,250 325,000 200,000 233,000 188,492 $22,642,630 1,125,000 2,996,410 1,800,000 9,000 35.00 J 7.00 < 1,000,000 119.60 6,600,000 8.00 200,000 47.00, 8.50 5 10.00 > 2,500,000 117.00? 2.00 J 10,500,000 10.50 481,913 23.69 1,221,886 13.00 120,000 Total, 651.09 611.09 $28,987,926 State of Mas8acbt78etts. 1. Berkshire 21.14 21.14 $600,009 2. Boston and Albany (New York) . . 162.64 162.641 Brookline Branch, 1.55 1.55 Newton Lower Falls Branch, . . 1.25 1.26 Saionville Branch, 3.85 3.85 't 15.760.910 Milford Branch, 11.97 11.97 Framingham Branch, .... 2.06 2.06 Millbury Branch, . * 3.07 3.07 3. Boston, Cbnton, and Fitchbuif, . . 28.97 28.97' 1,027,004 107.50 Companie, 4. Boston, Hartford, and Erie. Woonsocket Division, ' . . . . iso.ou Mechanicsville to WiUimantic(Ct.) 26.00 5. Boston and Lowell 26.76 Woburn Branch, 1.86 6. Boston and Maine (N. H. & Maine) . 32.83 Medford Branch, 2.33 Methuen Br. (leased toM.&Law.) 3.61 7. Boston and Providence, . . . . • 47.00 Branches, 7.07 8. Cape Cod, 46.01 Wareham Branch, 1.04 Cape Cod Central (consol. with C. Ced) 18.80 Cheshire (N. H.) 10.00 9. Connecticut River, 60.00 Chicopee Branch, 3.35 10. Danvers, 9.20 11. Dorchester and Milton 3.26 12. Eastern, 44.10 Marhlehead Branch, 3.60 Gloucester Branch, 16.66 Salisbury Branch, 3.41 Saugus Branch, ....*.. 10.10 Lawrence Branch, 19.87 13. Easton Branch, 3.78 14. Fall River, Warren & Providence (R. I.) 3.66 16. Fitchburg, 60.93 Watertown Branch, 7.85 Sterling Branch, 9.00 Marlboro' Branch, 3.90 Mason Branch (N. H.) .... 12.39 16. Fitchburg^and Worcester, .... 13.99 17. Hanover Branch 7.00 Hartford and New Haven (Conn.) . 6.87 18. Horn Pond Branch, 0.66 Lebanon Springs (N. Y. & Vt.) . . 20.00 19. Lexington and Arlington, .... 6.64 20. Lowell and Lawrence, 12.35 21. Middleboro' and Taunton, .... 8.64 22. Millbrd and Woonsocket, 3.88 23. Nashua and Lowell (N. H.) . . . . 8.36 24. New Bedford and Taunton, .... 50.13 Harbor Branch, 1.46 Fairhaven Branch, 16.11 25. Newburyport .' • • 14.68 Dauvers and Georgetown Line, . 12.39 New Haven and Northampton (Ct.) . 24.96 Williamsburg Extension, . . . 8.00 New London Northern (Ct.) . . . 44.91 Norwich and Worcester (Ct.) . . . 17.76 26. Old Colony and Newport (R. I.) . . 113.18 Branches, 10.60 27. Pittsfield and North Adams, . . . 18.66 28. Providence and Worcester (R. I.) . . 26.41 Branch, 1.00 29. Rockford, 3.60 30. Salem and Lowell, 16.88 31. Sheffield, 6.38 32. South Reading, 8.16 Branch, 0.22 33. South Shore 11.60 34. Stockbridge and Pittsfield, .... 21.93 36. Stoneham, 2.38 36. Stony Brook, 13.16 37. Stoughton Branch, 4.04 38. Taunton Branch, 11.10 Taunton River Branch, .... 0.68 39. Troy and Greenfield (tunnel) . . . 42.66 40. Vermont and Massachusetts (Vt.) . 68.83 Greenfield Branch, 8.00 Turner's Falls Branch (project) . 6.60 41. West Stockbridge, 2.75 42. Williamsburg and N. Adams (building) 38.00 43. Worcester and Nashua (N. H.) . , 39.12 TTtarC^pletld. ""t^i" 70.00 , 38.50 26.00' 26.76 J 1.86 ( 32.83 , 2.33 3.61 ' 47.00 j 7,000,( 2,657,600 4,926,211 46.01 I 1.04 5 18.80 10.00 60.00 \ 3.35 S 9.20 3.26 44.10 3.50 16..56 3.41 10.10 19.87 J 7.85 I 9.00 8.90 I2..39J 13.99 7.00 6.87 0.66 20.00 6.64 12.35 380,000 1,382,516 Total, 1,569.75 1,483.70 $74,699,443 8.35 20.13 1.46 16.11 14.58 12.39 24.96 8.00 44.91 17.75 113.18 10.60 18.65 26.41 1. 3.60 16.88 8.16 0.22 11.60 21.93 2.38 13.16 4.04 11.10 0.68 37.60 68.83 8.00 2.76 39.12 3,360,000 1,031,625 369,768 601,270 1,801,943 244,456 136,373 56,144 206,680 3,540,000 333.800 150.000. 265.028 15,248 600,000 258,708 363,168 152,839 110,662 443,923 697,386 677,205 335,932 687,319 701,481 6,676,040 443,678 91,667 468,969 100,000 299,846 601,692 448,700 66,376 267,383 110,253 260,000 3,750,000 2,674,784 248.496 State of Rhode Island. Fall River, Warren and Bristol (Mass.) 2.13 Hartford, Providence & Fishkill (Ct.) 26.42 New York, Providence & Boston (Ct.) 44.00 "" 17.32 13.60 18.00 Old Colony and Newport (Mass.) 2. Providence, Warren and B.istol, . Providence and Worcester (Mass.) $121,808 934,617 1,849,310 1,011,319 484,729 Total, 121.47 121.47 $5,132,672 State of Coknecticut. Boston, Hartford and Erie (Mass.) . 26.00 1. Connecticut Western (project) . . 66.87 2. Danbury and Norwalk, 24.00 Erie and New England (N. Y.) . 23.00 3. Fairhaven and Westville 6.00 4. Hartford and New Haven (Mass.) . 65.61 Middletown Branch, 10.75 New Britain and Middletown, . 2.47 Hartford Branch. 0.87 5. HartPd, Prov. & FishkUl (R.1.,N.Y.,) 133.00 6. Connecticut Valley, (project) . . . 43.76 7. Housatonic, 74.00 8. Naugatuck 67.00 9. New Haven and Derby, 13.33 65.611 10.75 i 2.47 ( 0.87 J 113.60 74.00 67.00 65,87» 436,638 6.675,e«0 8,105,668 2,026,700 420.660 RAILROADS LENGTH COST. 211 Length in MUe*. ^^'JM°^ Total. Completed, ""^y*' Corporate Titles of Companies. 10. New Haven and Northampton (Mass.) 68.04 Collinsville Branch, 8.00 Tariffville Branch, 1.15 11. New London Northern (Mass.) . • 55.09 12. New York and New Haven (N.Y.) . 48.11 Branch connection at New Haven, 3.00 1-3. New York, Providence & Boston (R.I.) 18.00 14. Norwich and Worcester (Mass.) . . 41.65 AUyn's JToint Branch, .... T.OO 16. RockviUe, . . . • 5.50 18. Shore Line (New Haven & N. Lond.) 50.00 Total, 841.28 689.57 $27,149,017 68.04- 8.00 < 1.76 S 1,737,272 65.09 780,150 3.00^ 5,366,448 18.00 751,983 41.65 I 7.00 J 2,001,719 5.50 175,000 Statk of Nkw York. Adirondac, 182.00 25.00 Albany and Susquehanna, .... 140.00 140.00 Atlantic & Gt. Western (Penn. & Ohio) 49.14 49.14 Avon, Geneseo and Mount Morris, . 15.50 15.50 Blossburg and Corning, 15.64 15.64 Boston & Albany ( Alb. &West St'ckbr.) 38.00 38.00 Hudson City Branch, 17.33 17.33 Buffalo, Bradford & Pittsburg (Pa.) , 9.00 9.00 Buffalo, Corry and Pittsburg (Pa.) . 36.70 36.70 Buffalo and Erie (part in Pa.) . . . 68.34 68.34 Buffalo, New York and Erie, . . . 142.00 142.00 Buffalo and Southern (Pa.) . . . . 90.00 Buffalo and Washington (Pa.) . . . 85.00 50.00 Cayuga and Susquehanna, .... 34.61 34.61 Chemung (3 rails), 17.36 17.36 Cooperstown & Susque. Valley R. R. 16.00 16.00 Dutchess and Columbia Counties, . 58.00 43.00 Branch to Hillsdale, 17.00 Elmira, Jefferson and Canandaigua, . 46.84 46.84 Elniira and Willianisport (Pa.) . . 9.00 9.00 Erie Railway (Pa.) 403.75 403.75") Union (Ramapo) ...... 0.25 0.25 ' Newbure Bianch, 19.00 19.00 Buffalo Branch, 60.00 6O.OOJ Erie and Genesee Valley (project) . 25.00 Erie and New England (Conn.) . . 37.00 Goshen and Deckertown (project) . 14.77 14.77 Hart.,Prov. & FishUill (in progress) 41.00 41.00 Hicksville and Cold Spring. . . . 4.00 4.00 Hudson River {N. Y. Central) . . .144.00 144.00 Lake Ontario Shore (projected) . .142.80 Rochester Branch, 6.00 Lebanon Springs (Mass. &Vt.) . .22.50 22.50 Long Island, 94.00 94.001 Jamaica to East New York, . . 6.50 6.50 Hempstead Branch, 2.50 2.50 Glen Cove, Roslyn and Mineola, . 6.50 6.50 Northport Branch, 4.50 4.50 J Middleburg and Schoharie, .... 5.30 5.30 Middletown, Unionville & Water Gap, 13.00 13.00 Montgomery and Erie, 10.26 10.26 Monticello and Port Jervis (project) 23.00 New York Central 297.75 Troy and Schenectady, . . . . 21.00 Schenectady and Athens, . . . 37.87 Syracuse, Auburn and Rochester, 104.00 Batavia and Attica, . . . .• . 11.00 Rochester and Suspension Bridge, 74.75 Lockport and Tonawonda, . . . 12.25 Rochester and Charlotte, . . . 6.88 Buffalo and Lewiston, .... 28.25 New York and Flushing, 8.00 New York and Harlem, 130.75 Port Morris Branch, . . , . . 2.12 N.York, Housato. & Northern (build'g) 39.75 New York and New Haven (Conn.) . 14.14 N. York & Oswego Midland (building) 240.00 Niagara Bridge nnd Canandaigua, . 93.46 Tonawonda Branch, 1.63 North Shore (L. 1.) 12.00 North Side (L. I.) 20.00 Ogdenshurg and Lake Champlain, . 118.00 Branches, 4.00 Oswego and Rome, 28.58 Oswego and Syracuse (3 rails) . . . 3fi.29 Platfsburg and Montreal, 2:{.00 Rensselaer and Saratoga, 25.22 Saratoga and Schenectady, . . 21.00 Albany and Vermont. .... IJ.OO Saratoira & Whitehall and branch, 47.52 Rutland & Whitehall & branch (Vt.) Troy, Salem and Rutland (Vt.) . 27.00 Rochester City and Brighton, . . . 9-50 Rochester and Genesee Valley, . . 18.45 Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburg, 141.11 Potsdam Branch, 24.28 Cape Vincent Branch, .... 24.24 Rondout and Oswego (project). . . 85.00 Schoharie Valley 4.38 Skaneateles, 5.00 Southern Central, 98.00 South Side (L. I.) 57.00 Branch, 0.75 Staten Island, • . . 13.00 Sterling Mountain, 7.60 Syracuse, Binghamton and N. York, 81.0(» Troy and Bennington, 5.38 Troy and Boston, 34.91 Troy and Oreenbush (double) . . . 6.00 Troy Union and Depot, 2.14 Utica and Black River, 86.25 Trenton Falls Branch, .... 2.14 Utica, Chenango and Susque. Valley, 82.00 Wallkill Valley, 20.00 Warwick Valley, 10.33 $2,079,058 7,000,000 6,903,718 216,664 582,346 2,411,056 216,036 992,029 1,211,500 5,446,340 3,396,088 1,250,000 589,110 400,000 320,000 1,700,000 600,000 305,198 )■ 62,000,000 369,250 1,000,000 45,262 19,185,989 4,495,814 100,000 344,870 287,200 345,000 13,098,050 248,304 1,872,260 6,000,000 1,000,000 300.000 925,999 1,. 398,754 600,000 149,120 268,060 656,026 4,362,525 1,000,000 82,102 100,846 1,000,000 2,000,000 356,301 601,122 8,468,115 247,350 2,285,981 294,908 762,238 1,800,000 2,000,000 400,000 172,576 Corporate Titles of Length in Miles. Cost of Road Companies. "^ Total. Completed. °^^t* 61. Waverly and State Line, .... 0.25 0.25 24,974 62. West Shore Hudson River, .... 150.00 150,000 63. Whitehall and Plattsburg (building) 91.00 28.00 800,000 Total, . 4,735.91 3,636.22 $229,001,671 Statk of Nkw Jersey. 1. Belvidere and Delaware, 67.00 67.00 $3,914,896 2. Camden and A mboy, 61.28 61.28") Trenton Branch, 6.19 6.19 I ,, -,. ,-- Trenton and Dean's Pond, . . . 17.00 17.00 [ ii,-«.'»,<'w New Brunswick Line, .... 26.11 26.11 J 3. Camden and Atlantic, 60.23 60.23 2,062,102 4. Camden and Burlington County, . 23.00 23.00 ) .,„ „.„ Buriington County. 7.13 7.13 J 710,H6J 5. Cape May and Millville, .... 41.25 41.25 701,034 6. Central of New Jersey, 74.00 74.00) 10 n-w cue Extra (wide) Track, . . • . . 60.00 60.00 J 18,UM,bi5 7. Deckertown and State Line (building) Ifi.OO 8. Flemington, 12.00 15.00 376,000 9. Freehold and Farmingdale (project) 10. Freehold and Jamesburg Agricultural, 17.00 17.00 329,305 11. Freehold and Squankum (projected) 12. Hackensack and New York, . . . 14.88 4.88 191,246 Lodi Branch (private) .... 0.78 0.78 20,000 13. Hibernia Mine, 3.50 3.50 40,250 14. Jersey City and Bergen Point, . . 10.00 10.00 300,000 15. Long Branch and Sea Shore, . . . 9.00 ft.OO 223,440 16. Long Dock and Tunnel (Erie) . . . 2.88 2.88 2,880,000 17. Millstone and New Brunswick, . . 6.63 6.63 109,918 18. Morris and Essex, 84.00 84.00 ) g r,^a uvr Boonton Branch, 5.00 5.00 \ S',57b,875 19. Newark and Bloomlield, .... 6.CK) 6.00 118,031 20. Newark and New York, .... 6.00 6.00 1,200,000 21. New Jersey, !i3.S0 33.80 7,341,278 22. Northern New Jersey, 21.25 21.25 524,226 23. Ogdeu Mine, 10.00 10.00 450,000 24. Orange and Newark, 9.00 9.00 680,000 25. Paterson and Hudson (Erie) . . . 14.50 14.50 630,000 26. Paterson and Newark (Erie) . . . 12.00 12.00 1,000,000 27. Paterson and Ramapo (Erie) . . . 15.12 15.12 350,000 28. Pemberton and Hightstown, . . . 22.00 22.00 633,786 29. request and Wallkill fbuilding) . . 12.00 12.00 250,000 30. Perth Aniboy and Wdodbridge, . . 16.81 16.81 1,674,723 31. Raritan and Delaware Bay, . . . 73.80 73.80, Long Branch, 6.00 5.00 [ 4,098,592 Tom's River Branch, 3.50 3.50 ' 32. Rocky Hill, 3.60 3.60 45,069 33. Salem 16.00 16.00 218,320 34. South Branch, 16.00 16.00 438,3l>0 36. Sussex, 26.00 12.00 474,400 36. Vincentown, 4.50 4.50 45,257 37. Warren, 18.25 18.25 2,059,050 38. West Jersey, 37.86 37.36 ) , ^, .,„, Millville and Glassboro, . . . 22.30 22.30 J i,»4tP,oi,4 Total, 1,023.65 989.65 $74,602,735 State of Pennsylvania. 1. Allegheny Valley, 176.41 132.00 $8,042,793 2. Atlau. &Gt.Wesfn(partinN.Y.&0.) 92.16 92.16> 17 077 qig Oil City Branch, 33.30 33.20 i n,^^',»w 3. Bald Eagle Creek, 61.19 51.19 J 1 050 000 Bellefonte Branch, 2.00 2.00$ 1,«50,000 4. Barclay Coal, 16.00 16.00 1,134,000 6, Bellefonte and Snow Shoe, . . . . 21.00 21.00) 442 059 Branch, 1.50 1.5U J ' Buffalo, Bradford & Pittsburg (N. Y.) 17.00 17.00 1,873,971 Buffalo, Corry and Pittsburg (N. Y.) 6.50 6.60 219,966 Buftulo and Erie (N.Y.) 19.66 19.66 1,272,460 Buffalo and Southern (N.Y.) . . . 35.00 Buffalo and Washington (N. Y.) . . 25.00 6. Catasauqua and Fogelsville, . . . 36.00 20.00 > ,.«> ,o<, Farmington Branch, 4.00 4.00 { i^^y^^^ 7. Catawissa, 65.00 65.00) 0744000 Summit Branch, 2..50 2.50 J *>,"»*,wu 8. Chartiers Valley 6.00 11.00 1,250,(00 9^Ch\X'l°aUey, f^"^''':"'.'''.''"'""^"!^ 2^.50 1.37,,9(K) 10. Chestnut Hill, 4.13 4.13 120,650 Clevel'd, Painesville & Ashtabula (O.) 25.53 25.53 1,419,617 Cleveland and Pittsburg (O.) . . . 15.00 15.00 701,812 11. Colebrookdale, 14.50 14.50 350,000 12. Columbia and Port Deposit (building) 45.00 10.00 400,000 13. Connecting (Phila.) 6.78 6.78 2,178,300 14. Connellsville and Southern (project) 15. Cumberiand Valley (Md.) .... 68.00 68.00 1,554,171 16. Danville, Hazleton fy Wilkesb're (b'dg) 38.00 17. Delaware & Hudson Canal Co.'s R. R. 32.00 32.00 2,387,578 18. Delaware, Lackawanna 4i" Western, 113.00 113.00) 13.988.876 Keyser Valley Branch 2.80 2.80 J ^Z'lZ 19. East Brandy wine and Waynesburg, . 17.50 flA^^ 20. East Mahanoy, ...... f . 7.54 7.64 391,604 21. East Pennsylvania, • . 36.55 o6.55 ) 1.912.860 Temple^Brinch', 1.67 1.67$ ^'„^'^ 22. Ebensburg and Cresson 10.65 10.65 213,000 23. Elmira and Willianisport (N. Y.) . 69.00 69.00 8,387,519 24. Enterprise (building) 22.00 6.50 ) ^r^ Branches, 3.19 3.19 J Erie Railway (N. Y.) 42.00 42.00 4,200,000 25. Erie and Pittsburg, 81.60 81.60) 2.900.000 Erie Harbor Branch, 2.00 2.00$ ' ' 26. Fayette County, • . 12.66 12.66 130,000 27. Gettysburg, 17.12 17.12 313,000 28. Hanover BMnch, • . 12.20 12.20 263,815 29. Harrisburg and Lancaster, .... 36.00 36.00 ) 1.882,650 Columbia Branch, 18.00 18.00$ , .„' 30. Hemp field (W.Va.) 67.00 23.00 1,477,79* 31. Huntingdon and Broad Top Mountain, 44.00 44.00 ) 2.201,675 Branches, 14.71 14.751 212 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. Corporate Title* of Companies. Length in Miles. Total. Completed. 32. IroBfon, 9.60 Branch, 1.25 33. Ironton and Hamburg (project) • . 18.25 34. Jamestown and Franklin, .... 43.25 Coal Branch, 1.50 35. Junction (Phila.) 4.62 36. Lackawanna and Bloomsburg, . • 80.00 Pittston Branch, 2.00 37. Lawrence (part in Ohio) . , . • 10.00 38. Lebanon and Pinegrove, 22.00 39. Lehigh and Lackawanna, .... 36.00 40. Lehigh and Susquehanna, .... 105.00 Nanticoke Branch, 25.00 Nescopec Branch, 9.00 Coplay Branch, 1.00 Back Track, 13.00 Mine Laterals, 40.00 41. Lehigh Valley, 101.00 Black Creek and Mt. Camiel, . . 42.62 Penn Haven and Audenried, . . 17.56 Fenn Haven and Hazelton, . . . 14.67 Short branches in all, 42.00 42. Little Saw Mill Run, 3.00 43. Little Schuylkill, 28.25 Branches (Panther and Wabash) . 3.60 44. Littlestown, 7.25 45. Lorberry Creek, 5.50 Panther Head Branch, 1.00 46. Locust Gap, 4.88 47. McCauley Mountain , 6.25 48. Mahanoy and Broad Mountain, . . 12.50 Branches, 25.10 Short branches and sidings, . . 29.90 49. Middle Creek (building) 50.00 M.iMifflin and Centre Counties, . . . 12.50 51. Mill Creek, 15.03 62. Mill Creek and Mine Hill 4.09 Extension and Branches, . . . 12.70 53. Mine Hill and Schuylkill Haven, . 24.50 Extension and Branches, . . • 118.83 64. Monongahela Valley (project) . . . 65. Mount Carbon, 6.26 Branches, 6.80 bi. Mount Carbon and Port Carbon, . . 4.76 Branches, 9.26 67. Nesquehoning Valley (building) . . 16.00 Mine branches 12.00 68. Newcastle and Beaver Valley, , . I4.92 59. N. Y. & Middle Coal Fields (projected) Northern Central (Md.) .... 98.00 60. North Lebanon g.oo Branches, 0.20 $1. North Pennsylvania, 65.26 Doylestowi) Branch, 10.10 Shimerville Branch, 1.89 62. Oil Creek and Allegheny River, . . 96.00 Cherry Run Branch, 3.50 63. Panther Creek, 6.50 64. Peachbottom (projected) .... 66. Pennsylvania, 300.90 Holidaysburg Branch, .... 7.60 Indiana Branch, 19.00 Steubenville Extension, . . . 1.30 Point Breeze Br. & Del. Extension, 5.50 Tyrone connecting link 8.10 66. Penn. and New York Canal R. R. . 105.00 67. Pennsylvania Caunel Coal, . . . 12.00 68. Pennsylvania Coal, 47.00 Lackawaxen Branch, .... 16.87 60. Perkiomen, 36.50 70. Philadelphia and Baltimore Central, 57.50 71. Phila., Germantown and Norristown, 17.08 Germantown Branch, .... 3.14 TC. Philadelphia and Reading, .... 93.00 Richmond Branch, 6.00 Lebanon Valley 54.00 T3, Philadelphia and Erie, 287.51 74. Philadelphia and New Hope (project) 37.50 75. Philadelphia and Trenton, . . . 26.50 76. Phil.,Wilmingt'n & Bait. (Del. & Md.)100.00 Port Deposit Branch, 3.8I 77. Pittsburg and Connellsville, . . . 149 OO 78. Pittsb.,Ft.Wayne&Chic.(0.,Ind.&ni.) 4o!50 79. Pittsburg and Steubenville (W. Va.) 35.00 80. Plymouth, 10,25 81. Port Clinton &. Topton (building) . 82. Port Kennedy, 0.78 *3. Reading and Columbia, 40.OO Lancaster Branch, ...... g.OO 84. Schuylkill and Susquehanna, . . . 64.00 Branch, I'nA 86. Schuylkill Valley, 9'23 Branches, 2o'.65 86. Shamokin Valley and PottsviUe, . . 28.00 Colliery Branch, ....•, j.oo 87. South Mountain, . , 16.00 88. Southern Pennsylvania (project) . . 89. Southwark (P. W. & B. R. R.) . . 2.12 90. Strasburg, 4.28 91. Swatara (Cold Spring) 6.00 92. Summit Branch (Lykeni Valley) . 21.00 Branch, 0.50 93. Tioga, 36.60 94. Trevorton, 15.30 95. Tyrone and Clearfield, . . . . 37.50 Branches, 8.83 96. Union Canal Company's Railroad, . 3.60 Branches, 2.25 97. Union Coal Company's Railroad, . 19.00 W. Westchester, . • 9.00 Branch, 1.26 9.60 > 1.25 J 43.25) 1.50 < 4.62 80.00 > 2.00 i 10.00 82.00 15.00 105.001 25.00 9.00 [ 1.00 13.00 40.00 101.00 42.62 17.56 14.67 42.00 3.00' 28.25 ) 3.60 i 7.25 6.50? 6.25 12.50 , 25.10 j 29.90' 26.00 12.50 15.03 4.09? 12.70 S 24.50 ) 118.83 < 16.00 12.00 j 14.92 98.00 8.00 J 0.20 i 55.26 J 10.10 1.89' 96.00? 3.50^ 6.50 7.60 19.00 1.30 5.50 3.10 105.00 12.00 47.00 ) 15.87 I 36.50 57.50 17.08 ) 3.14 S 93.00 , 6.00 > 54.00' 287.51 26.50 00.00? 3.81 ( 59.50 40.50 35.00 10.25 0.78 40.00? 8.00^ 64.00? 1.00^ 9.23? 20.65 S 28.00? 6^ J 16.00 2.12 4.28 6.00 31.00? 0.50 J 36.60 15.30 37..50 ? 8.83 5 3.50? 2.25 ( 19.00 9.00? 1.25 ( Cost of Road and Equip- ment. $268,000 1,643,128 892,751 3,753,130 235,294 1,000,000 675,100 13,570,595 20,000,000 91,011 1,466,200 76,083 82,050 100,000 160,500 2,088,244 1,000,000 252,491 300,000 323,375 3,775,000 203,260 282,350 600,000 425,007 8,756,319 319,632 7,549,787 150,000 29,761,533 4,000,000 300,000 2,000,000 1,500,000 2,000,000 1,809,441 20,000,000 1,708,227 10,311,197 4,103,728 2,592,000 1,750,000 250,000 15,000 2,134,725 1,299,845 676,050 1,669,450 200,000 68,368 100,000 41,780 975,868 1,085,175 1,890,000 1,000,000 130,000 500,000 165,100 Corporate Titles of Length in Miles. ^*',C^.''<* ^ompanUs. Total. Completed. ''"^^^"**' 99. Westchester and Philadelphia, . . 26.38 26.38 $1,599,633 100. Western Pennsylvania 42.50 42.50 ? „ ^^ „,, Allegheny Extension, .... 21.30 21.30 J S"^j9l6 15. Southern Maryland (project) . . • 16. Union (project) 17. Wa.shington County, 23.00 23.00 600,000 18. Western Maryland, 67.00 48.00 ? o snn nn« Hagerstown Extension 27.00 J 5!,&0U,0U0 19. Worthmgt'nValley & Manch. (project) 22.50 Total, 730.02 493.52 $31,814,659 State of West Virginia. Baltimore and Ohio (Md.) . . . .241.00 1. Chesapeake and Ohio (building) . . 224.00 Hempfield (Pa.) 9.00 2. Iron Valley (B. &0. R.R.). . . . 3.26 3. Northwest. Virginia (Parkersb'g Br.) 103.50 Pittsburg and Steubenville (Pa.) . . 8.00 4. West Virginia Central (project) . . 135.00 Total, 723.75 State of Virginia. Alexand. A Fredericksburg (suspended) 40.00 Alexandria, Loudoun & Hampshire, 170.00 Alex. & Georgetown (via Aqueduct) . 4.00 Alexand., Georgetown & Washington, 7.00 Blue Ridge (State Road) 16.81 Chesapea. & Ohio (Virginia Central) 347.00 Clover Hill, 21.50 Fred'ksb'g & Gordonsville (suspended) 45.00 Georgetown and Leesburg (project) Lynchburg and Danville (project) . 80.00 Norfolk & Great Western (project) . Norfolk and Petersburg, 81.00 Orange, Alex. &. Manassas Gap, viz. : Alexandria to Gordonsville, . . 83.30 Charlottesville to Lynchburg, . 59.50 Manassas Junction to Harrisonb'g, 139..30 Warrenton Branch, 8.90 Front Royal Branch, 1.00 Petersburg fN. Carolina) .... 61.00 Gaston Branch (N. Carolina) . . 21.30 Richmond and Danville (N. Car.) . 135.50 Midlothian Branch, 1.14 Manchester Branch, 1.56 Richmond, Frederick & Potomac, . 75.50 Springfield Branch 3.50 Richmond and Petersburg, .... 22.14 Port Walthall Branch, .... 2.75 Richmond and York River, .... 69.30 Roanoke Valley (N. Carolina) . . . 6.00 Seaboard and Roanoke (N. Carolina) 53.28 241.00 9.00 3.25 103.60 8.00 $16,189,315 6,000,000 180,000 100,00* 6,000,000 400,000 364.75 $27,869,315 69.00 $1,000,000 2,600,000 7.00 16.81 212.63 21.50 250,000 1,674,723 T,000,000 430,000 272,165 59.50 I 112.00 1. 8.90 i.ooj 61.00? 21.30$ 135.50 , 1.14 > 1.56' 75.50 ? 3.50 \ 22.14 ? 2.75 i 38.30 6.00 63. 2S 2,399,175 9,120,000 1,550,337 4,929,000 2,297,981 977,078 1,250,000 175,494 1,421 ,39< RAILROADS LENGTH — COST. 213 Corporate Titles of Length in Miles. ^^t^J't?;?:'^^ Companies. Total. Completed. ^^"**' 81. South Side (Petersburg & Lynchburg) 123.00 123.00? 4o,Qfi"i,;n City Point BrauchT . . . . . 9.50 9.50 J $3,796,150 22. Virginia and Kentucky (project) . . 95.00 172,398 83. Virginia and Tennessee, . .... 204.24 204.24 , Salt Works Branch, 9.42 9.42 S 7,570,627 Other Branches, 1-20 1.20 > 84. Winchester iSc Potomac (B.& Ohio) . 32.00 32.00 600,000 85. Winchester and Strasburg, .... 19.00 19.00 500,000 Total, 2,049.11 1,482.94 $49,886,481 State of North Carolina. 1. Air Line of North Carolina (project) • 22.00 2. Atlantic and North Carolina, . . . 94.92 94.92 Charlotte & South Carolina (S.C.) . 6.00 6.00 3. Chatham (Raleigh to Gulf) . . . 53.00 53.00 4. French Broad, 80.00 30.00 5. North Carolina, 223.00 223.00 Petersburg (Va.) 8.50 8.50 Gaston Branch (Va.) 9.00 9.00 6. Piedmont, 48.50 48.60 7. Raleigh and Gaston, 97.00 97.00 Richmond and DanviUe(Va.) . . . 6.00 6.00 Roanoke Valley (Va.) 37.00 14.00 Seaboard and Roanoke (Va.) . . . 26.75 26.75 8. Western (Coal) 43.00 43.00 9. Western North Carolina, 81.00 81.00 Newton Branch, 3.50 3.50 Western Division (progressing) . 192.00 10. Wilmington, Charlotte & Rutherford, 117.00 117.00 Western Division 151.00 25.00 11. Wilmington &. Manchester (S. C.) . 63.50 63.50 12. Wilmington and Weldon, , . . . 162.00 162.00 Tarboro' Branch 19.00 19.00 13. Williamston & Tarboro' (building) . Total, 1,552.97 1,129.67 State of South Carouna. 1. Air Line (Atlanta and Richmond). . 160.00 8. Blue Ridge, 53.50 37.30 ) Branch, 1.50 1.50 J 3. Charlotte and South Carolina (N. C.) 109.60 109.60 4. Cheraw and Darlington, . . . . 40.30 40.30 6. Cheraw and Salisbury (project) . . 63.00 6. Col. & Angus, (now con. with C.&S.C.) 82.00 82.00 7. Greenville and Columbia, . . . .143.25 143.25, Abbeville Branch 11.60 11.50 > Anderson Branch, 9.60 9.50 ' 8. King's Mountain, 22.50 22.50 9. Laurens, . .• 32.00 32.00 10. North E istem, 102.00 102.00 11. Port Royal (project) 110.00 12. Savannah and Charleston (Ga.) . . 88.52 88.52 13. South Carolina, 137.00 137.00 , Columbia Branch 68.00 68.00 { Camden Branch, 38.00 38.00 ' 14. Spartanburg and Union, 68.00 68.00 15. Wilmington & Manchester (N. Car.) 99.00 99.00 Total, 1,439.17 1,089.97 Statk of Georgia. 1. Atlanta and West Point, 86.74 86.74 2. Atlantic and Gulf, 254.00 237.00 } Florida Branch (Fla.) . . . . • 29.00 29.00 J 3. Augusta and Savannah, .... 53.25 53.25 4. Barnesville and Thomaston, . . . 16.00 16.00 5. Brunswick and Albany, 166.00 60.00 6. Central of Georgia. 190.46 190.46 East Tennessee and Georgia (Tenn.) 14.08 14.08 7. Etowah, 8.87 8.87 8. Georgia, 171.00 ' 171.00"| Athens Branch, 39.00 39.00 j Warrenton Branch, 4.00 4.00 ( Washington Branch, 18.00 18.00 J 9. Georgia Air Line ( Atlanta & Richm'd) 120.00 20.00 10. Macon and Augusta, 62.00 42.00 11. Macon and Brunswick, 174.00 70.29 18. Macon and Western, 102.50 102.50 13. Milledgeville and Eatonton, . . . 38.31 38.31 14. North East(;rn (Athens to Clayton) . 15. Rome and Kingston, 20.00 20.00 16. Savan., Griffin & N. Alabama (project) 17. Savannah and Charleston (S. C.) . . 15.00 16.00 18. Savannah, Skidaway and Seaboard, . 8.50 8.50 Selma, Rome and Dalton( Ala.) . . 55.00 55.00 19. South Georgia and Florida, .... 58.00 24.00 20. Southwestern, 107.50 107.50" Butter Branch, 21.00 21.00 Muscogee, 60.00 60.00 Eufala Branch, 59.50 89.50 Fort Gaines Branch, 19.50 19.50 21. Western and Atlantic (Tenn.) . . , 124.20 124.20 Total, .^ 2,095.41 1,694.70 State of Florida. Atlantic and Gulf (Ga.) 20.00 20.00 1. Florida, 154.00 154.00 2. Florida and Alabama, 45.20 45.20 3. Florida, Atlantic and Gulf, .... 60.00 60.00 4. Pensacola and Georgia, 297.00 130.00 Monticello Branch, 4.00 4.00 Tallahassee Branch, 27.00 21.00 5. Perdido and Junction, 6.00 6.00 Total, 613.20 440.30 $ 2,000,000 120,000 2,500,000 1,000,000 4,950,609 377,410 1,891,202 2,000,000 174,918 311,219 570,912 1,025,016 3,000,000 2,000,000 6,000,000 1,522,712 3,061,431 $29,605,425 $160,000 4,000,000 2,000,000 600,000 2,000,000 3,099,715 245,000 640,000 2,148,131 250,000 1,500,000 7,667,444 1,360,000 2,278,527 $27,848,817 $1,200,235 6,117,910 1,187,919 200,000 1,200,000 4,472,000 352,729 120,000 4,156,000 1,000,000 1,479,005 1,600,000 2,000,000 766,200 250,000 882,007 200,000 1,500,000 600,000 4,591,548 4,600,000 $36,875,553 $371,219 3,000,000 1,300,000 1,500,000 3,652,762 $9,883,981 Corporate Titles of Companies. Lengthin Miles. ^Z^A^"'^ Total. Completed. ""^^^I"^- . iviuuue aiiu uiraiu, z/o.i> . Mobile &. Montgomery (consolidation) 186.0 1. Mobile & Ohio (Miss., Tenn. & Ky.) 63.0 . Montgomery and Eufala, .... 80.0 State of Alabama. Ala. & Chattanooga (Merid. to Chatt.) 300.00 Marion and Cahawba, 32.00 Memphis, Holly Springs and Selma, 42.00 Memphis* Charleston (Ten. & Miss.) 146.80 Florence Branch, 6.00 Memphis and Savannah (project) . . Miss., Gainesville & Tuscaloosa (Miss.) 84.00 Mobile and Girard, 228.00 .00 .00 .00 Montgomery and West Point, . . . 88.50 Opelika Branch, ...... 28.40 Nashville and Decatur (Tenn.) . . 26.00 North Western, H.50 Savan., Griffin & N. Alabama (progress) Selma and Gulf (project) 58,80 Selma and Meridian, 81.30 Southern Ala. (Columbia to Pollard) 120.00 " .^ .. ,„ . j^gijij 183.00 36.50 44.00 18.00 Selma, Rome and Dalton (Ga.) South and North Alabama, . . . Tennessee and Coosa (project) . . Western (Montgomery to Selma) Winchester & Huntsville (project) Total, State of Mississippi. Alabama and Chattanooga, .... 12.00 1. Grand Gulf and Port Gibson, . . . 8.00 Memphis & Charleston (Tenn. & Ala.) 38.50 2. Memphis, Holly Springs & Selma (prog.) 8. Mississippi Central (Tenn.) . . . .189.00 Mississippi and Tennessee (Tenn.) . 89.20 Miss., Gainesville fy Tuscaloosa (Ala.) 6.00 Mobile and Ohio (Ky.,Tenn. & Ala.) 270.00 Columbus Branch, 14.50 N. Orl., Jackson & Gt.Northern(La.) 117.00 4. New Orleans and Mobile (progress) . 6. Raymond Branch, 7.00 6. Vicksburg and Meridian, 140.00 West Feliciana (La.) 9.00 Total, 900.20 State of Louisiana. 1. Baton-Rouge, Gros-Tete & Opelousas, 46.00 2. Berwick Bay and Texas (project) . 100.00 3. Clinton and Port Hudson, .... 22.00 4. Mexican Gulf, 27.00 6. Milnburg and Lake Pontchartrain, . 6.00 6. New Orleans and Carrollton, . . . 6.50 Branches, 9.00 7. N.O., Jackson &Gt. Northern (Miss.) 89.00 8. New Orleans & Mobile (progressing) 9. N. Orleans, Opelousas & Gt. Western, 258.00 Lapruche Branch, 2.80 Southern Texas Branch, .... 100.00 Red River Branch, 36.00 10. North Louisiana and Texas, . . . 190.00 Western Extension (Pacific) . . 18.00 11. West Feliciana (Miss.) 18.00 Total, 928.30 State of Texas. 1. Buffalo Bayou, Brazos & Colorado, . 165.00 2. Columbus and San Antonio (project) 3. Eastern Texas, 140.00 4. Galveston, Houston & Henderson, . 50.00 Connecting Branch at Houston, . 1.75 5. Houston and New Orleans, .... 108.00 6. Houston Tap and Brazoria, .... 80.00 7. Houston and Texas Central, . . . 356.08 Austin Branch, 100.00 8. Indianola (progress) 9. Memphis, El Paso & Pacific (project) 600.00 10. Sabine and Rio Grande (project) . . 11. San Antonio and Mexican Gulf, . . 135.00 12. Southern Pacific, 788.00 13. Texas TransporUtion, 6.50 Total, 2,529.25 State of Arkansas. 1. Cairo and Fulton, 301.00 2. Little Rock and Fort Smith, . . . 165.00 3. Little Rock and Helena 98.00 4. Little Rock, Pine Bluff ^ N. Orleans, 112.00 6. Memphis and Little Rock, .... 131.00 6. Mississippi, Ouachita and Red River, 100.00 Total, 897.00 State of Tennessee. 1. Cincinnati, Cumber. Gap & Charleston, 94.00 2. East Tennessee and Georgia (Ga.) . 96.72 Chattanooga Branch, .... 30.00 3. East Tennessee and Virginia, . . . 130.28 4. Edgefield and Kentucky, .... 47.00 8. Knoxville and Charleston (progress) 53.00 6. Knoxville and Kentucky (progress) . 65.00 Louisville and Nashville (Ky.) . . 45.00 7. Memphis A Charleston (Miss. & Ala.) 86.26 Somerville Branch, 16.00 8. Memphis, Claiksville & Louisville, . 82.60 63.50 32.00 20.00 146.80 ) 6.00 i 22.00 63.00 164.00 63.00 40.00 88.50 I 28.40 \ 26.00 11.60 $3,000,000 1,000,000 700,000 4,129,318 440,00» 1,620,978 4,737,000 1,892,118 714,990 2,944,724 940,113 250,000 588,000 2,163,922 7,500,000 1,800,900 1,036.00 $36,421,163 12.00 $300,000 8.00 200,000 38.50 1,096,829 189.00 89.20 6.00 270.00 14 117.00 .00 J .50 i 7.00 140.00 9.00 6,511,059 1,976,623 135,000 8,491,211 3,879,614 100,000 3,049,268 180,000 900.20 $24,919,504 $327,000 22.00 27.00 6.00 6.50? 9.00$ 89.00 750,000 665,000 220,000 656,000 2,988,712 80.20 V 2.80 . 190.00 ? 18.00 \ 18.00 6,218,511 5,200,000 360,000 414.50 $17,385,223 85.60 31.00 60.00 ) 1.75 i 108.00 80.00 130.00 25.00 28.00 27.50 6.50 $2,500,000 1,000,000 2,000,000 3,500,000 2,400,000 2,706,000 600,000 700.000 i,500,oeo 200,000 672.25 $17,006,000 $1,000,000 310,000 1.00 86.00 96.72 ? 30.00 S 130.28 47.00 16.00 31.00 45.00 86.26 ? 16.00 S 82.50 800,000 2,600,000 $4,310,060 $940,000 3,759,764 3,412,921 1,175,000 800,000 1,200,000 1,662,913 2,615,619 3,037,069 2U TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. Corporate TUUs of J^?*^A^ ^*',"j ^and^^t^ ^ompanUs. Total. Completed. ^^^ ■»' Memphis and Ohio, 130.60 130.60 $3,880,692 Mcannnville and Manchester, . . 34.20 34.20 8?5,000 Mississippi CentraUMiss.) .... 47.40 47.40 1,410,922 Mississippi River (Memphis to Cairo) 101.00 \ 1.000,000 Branch to Troy, 6.00 5 „„,,,„ Mississippi and -Tennessee (Miss.) . 10.00 10.00 223,112 Mobile &. Ohio (Ky., Miss. & Ala.) . Il8.50 118.50 3,522,711 Nashville and Chattanooga, . . .149.75 149.75? 6.822,580 Shelby viUe Branch, 9.00 9.00 < ' ' Jasper Branch, 14.00 14.00 280,000 Nashville and Decatur (Ala.) . . . 94.00 94.00) 3.912,716 Mount Pleasant Branch, . . . . 12.50 12.50 5 '',„o Nashville and Northwestern (Ky.) . 167.40 167.40 4,496,178 Rogersville and Jefferson, .... 18.50 15.50 376,250 le°e"st'e7uanTirStfc%a.): '. '. \ 13.80 13.80 600 000 Total, 1,876.63 1,435.63 $46,918,448 State of Kkntucky. Breckenridge Coal, ........ 8.50 8.50 $370,000 Cincinnati Southern (project) . • • „„ ^ Covington and Big Sandy project . 120.00 ■Pli^ahpthtown & Paducah project) . 140.00 20.00 500,000 Evrnsville?HendeVson& Nashville,. 98.00 98.00 3,500,000 l:n"ucky Central ( Covington & Lex.) 80.00 80.00 4,500,000 Lexington and Big Sandy, .... 12.00 12.00) ^^^qqq Coalton Branch, 0.75 0.75 J ' Lexin-ton and Southern Kentucky,. 35.00 13.00 756,500 ''SKt^^"ra*nS°T'.'"--'29.00 29.00 , 654,716 LouiSa'dFranUfort,'. . . . 65.00 65.00 1,372,114 Cincinnati Branch, ...... .81.00 81.00 4,576,986 Louisville, Harrodsburg&Va. (project) Louisville and Nashville (Tenn.) . . 140.00 140.00] Bardstown Branch, 17.30 17.30 j. io,l96,965 Kphu'^BrTnti; ; .• : : . '. S Sj KnWranch fex-teAsion, . . 135.00 54.9o' 8,876,474 Richmond Branch, 33.00 33.00 786,645 MaysviUe an.l Lexington, .... 89.00 18.80 601,298 S^'i^lSS^:l^i^.kM^ t fo 20.60 609,137 Nashville and Northvi^estem (Tenn.) 7.50 7.50 210,911 New Orleans and Ohio, . .\ . . 62.00 62.00 1,550,000 Portland and LouisviUe, _6^ 6.00 100>000 Total, 1,402.85 849.65 $33,511,746 State of Ohio. Ashtabula and New Lisbon, ... 84.62 13.00 $846,200 Atlantic &Gt. Western (Pa. &N.Y.) 246.02 246.02, Silver Creek Branch, . . • . . . 4.98 4.98 J 34,693,979 Cleveland Branch (Wide track) . . 48.92 48.92 > Carrollton and Oneida, 11.50 11.50 103,500 Central Ohio (Baltimore and Ohio) . 137.08 137.08 6,511,209 Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton, . 60.30 60.30 ) 4,295,394 Atlantic and Great Western track, 60.30 60.30 ( ^i-w^j^** Cincinuiti and Indiana, 20.50 20.50 ) 2,500,000 Harrison Branch, 6.70 6.70 ) Cin and Indianapolis Junction (Ind.) 20.00 20.00 661,300 Cincinn., Richmond* Chicago (Ind.) 36.00 36.00 1,009,689 Cincinnati, Sandusky and Cleveland, 155.00 155.00 ) k 700 nnn Findlay Branch, 16.00 16.00 \ ^jl^yWO Cincinnati and Zanesville, .... 162.80 132.13 2,969,361 Clevel'd,Colum., Cin. & Indianapolis, 256.48 256.48 ) g ggQ ^j Springfield Branch, 49.89 49.89 S ' Cleveland and PitUburg,. . . . .101.00 101.00 Tuscarawas Extension, .... 22.00 32.00 „..„.,. Hanover Branch, 1-50 1.50 |- 9,563,410 Beaver Extension (Pa.) .... 7.00 7.00 Wheeling Extension, 47.00 47.00J Cleveland, Mt.Verujn and Delaware, 60.75 60.75 1,568,234 CoL. Chic, fclulianap. Central (Ind.) 115.00 115.00 6.774 902 Union City Branch, 19.50 19.50 ».'<'».»"■« Columbus and Hocking Valley, . . 75.28 60.00 1,800,000 Columbus and Xenia, 54.69 54.69 1,840,633 Dayton and Michigan, 141.37 141.37 6,481,899 Dayton and Union, 31.81 31.81 599,684 Dayton and Western, 36.00 36.00 1,087,779 Davton, Xenia and Belpre, .... 15.26 15.26 415,000 Iron, 24.00 13.00 314,878 Lake Erie and Louisville 176.00 38.50 1,720,700 Lake Shore & Mich. South. (N. Y., P. I. M. & 111.) 485.39 485.39 29,123,400 Lawrence (Penn.) 7.40 7.40 164,116 Little Miami, 84.19 84.19 4,518,309 Mahoning (Cleveland & Mahoning). 67.81 67.81 > o onn oor Hubbard Branch, 12.37 .12.37 ( iiiM> Marietta and Cincinnati, 190.80 190.801 Hillsboro' Branch, 21.00 21.00', ,0 om ^M, Union Branch, 9.00 9.OO f 19>303,112 Portsmouth Branch, 66.00 66.00 J Ohio and Mississippi (Ind. & III.) . . 19.00 19.OO 1,620,000 Pittsburg, Cincinnati and St. Louis, 117.00 117.00 NewarktoCol.(undiv. half of 33m. Cent. O.K. R,) J 9,432,117 Cadiz Branch, 8.00 8.00' Pittsb'g, Ft. Wayne & Chic. (P.,I.&I.) 251.00 251.00 14,208,709 Pittsburg, MaysviUe and Cincinnati, 225.00 1,000,000 Sandusky, Mansfield and Newark, . 116.25 116.25 3,050,235 Springfield and Columbus, .... 19.60 19.60 346,000 Roads not included in above, being ^ «oo no 9fto n« Kruv\nnn road* recently completed, Ac. . . \ ^'^ ^^•*^ 5,000,000 Total, 4,613.96 3,723.89 $190,424,507 Corporate TUlet of Companie*. Length in Mitet. Total. Completed, Stats of Michigaw. Bay City and Saginaw, 12.00 12.00 Bay de Noquet and Marquette, . . 130.00 45.00 Chicago, Detroit & Can. Grand Junc'n, 59.00 69.00 Chicagw & Mich. Lake Shore (progress) 45.00 Detroit, Howell and Lansing, . . . 84.00 Flint and Pere Marquette, .... 189.50 98.00 Grand Rapids and Indiana, .... 350.00 45.00 Grand River Valley, 91.00 91.00 Jackson, Lansing and Saginaw, . . 116.00 116.00 Kalamazoo, Allegan & Grand Rapids, 49.50 49.50 Kalamazoo and South Haven, . . . 40.00 20.00 Lake Shore & Mich. South. (N. ¥., ) jjg 05 115.06 1 Pa., O., Ind. & III.,) . .. . ^''°-""' Branch from Adrian to Monroe, . 33.60 33.60 , Jackson Br. (Palmyra to Jackson) 44.40 44.40 | Constantine Branch, 4.18 4.18 I Detroit, Monroe & Toledo (Ohio). 61.82 61.82 J Michigan Air Line, 280.00 20.00 Michigan Central (Ind. and 111.) . . 221.00 221.00 Northern Central ( Lansinp to Ind. line) 56.00 Peninsula (Chicago & N. W. R. R.). 65.30 66.30 i Branches and Extensions . , . 5.90 5.90 1 Peninsulaof Michigan (progressing) 108.00 40.00 Port Huron & Chi. Air Line (progress) 110.00 30.00 St. Joseph Valley, 32.00 32.00 Cost of Road and Equip- ment. $360,000 1,095,391 2,500,000 199,471 3,619,600 1,200,000 2,730,000 2,598,023 1,500,000 400,000 500,000 11,600,000 4,881,629 2,200,000 1,600,000 640,000 Total, 2,293.26 1,198.76 $48,793,4W State of Indiana. Chicago, Cincinnati & Louisville, . 103.00 Cine. &. Indianapolis Junction (Ohio) 78.00 Louisville Branch (J of 24 miles) . 12.00 Cincinnati and Martinsville, . . . 40.00 Cine, Richmond & Chicago (Ohio) . 6.00 Clevel'd, Columbus, Cincin. & Ind. (O.) 84.00 Colum.,Chic.& Indianap. Central (O.) 211.60 Indianapolis Line, 72.50 Logansport and State Line, . . 169.60 Louisville Branch (i of 24 miles) . 12.00 Columbus and Shelby ville, .... 24.00 Evansville and Crawfordsville, . . 109.00 Rockville Extension, 23.00 Grand Rapids & Indiana (Michigan) 48.00 Indiana and Illinois (III.) 71.00 Indianapolis, Cincinnati & Lafayette, 159.00 Indianap., CrawPdv. & Danville (HI.) 78.00 Indianapolis, Peru and Chicago, . . 76.00 Indianapolis and Vincennes, . . . 14.00 Jeffersonville, Madison & Ind'napolis, 108.00 Madison Division, 46.00 Jefferson-Madison Junction, . . 4.00 Joliet and Indiana (III.) 16.00 Knightstown and Shelbyville, . . . 27.00 L. Shore A M.Sou.(N.Y.Pa.O.M.AIll.) 101.00 Goshen Air Line (Ohio) .... 66.70 Louisville, New Albany & Chicago, . 288.00 Michigan Central (Mich. & lU.) . . 61.00 Ohio and Mississippi (Ohio & III.). . 173.00 Pittsb.,Ft.Wayne&Chic. (Pa.,0.&lll.) 151.00 Richm. A Miami (Dayton A Western) 6.00 Shelby and Rush, 20.00 Terre Haute and Indianapolis, . . . 73.00 Toledo, Wabash & Western (O. A 111.) 166.90 Union Track (Indianapolis) .... 6.00 White Water Valley, 80.00 Roads not otherwise accounted for, 2,600.00 Total, 6,331.10 State of Ilunois. American Central, 180.00 Belleville and Southern Illinois, . . 140.00 Cairo, M'dCityA Vincennes (progress) 150.00 Paducah Br. (Raleigh to Liberty) . 60.00 Chicago, Blue Island A Ind. (project) 27.00 Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, . 204.00 Aurora Branch, 13.00 Peoria Line, 63.00 Lewiston Branch and Extension, 60.00 Quincy Line, 100.00 Carthage Branch (Bushnell) • . 30.00 Chicago and Alton, 243.00 Chicago A Milwaukee (Wisconsin) . 46.00 Chicago & Northwestern (Wis.) . . 14.00 Freeport Line, 91.00 Clinton Line, 138.00 Richmond Line, 33.00 Madison Line (Wis.) 19.60 RockfordKeiiosha Line (Wis.) . 32.40 Peninsula Line (Mich.) .... Chic, Rock Island A Pacific (Iowa) 182.00 Port Byron Branch, 11.00 Illinois Central, 308.15 Galena Branch, 252.20 Chicago Branch, 146.60 Illinois Coal, 4.00 Illinois Southeastern, 120.00 Indiana and Illinois (Ind.) .... 13.00 Ind., Bloomington A Western (Ind.) 128.00 Joliet A Chicago (Chicago A Alton) 37.00 Joliet and Northern Indiana (III.). . 30.00 L. Sh. If Mi. Sou. (N.Y., P. O. M.AInd.) 12.00 Michigan Central (Mich. A Ind.) . . 13.00 Mound City, 3.50 Ohio and Mississippi (Ohio and Ind.) 148.00 . Peoria and Bureau Valley, .... 46.60 Peoria, Pekin A Jacksonville, . . . 161.60 97.00 18.00 J 12.00 S 40.00 6.00 84.00 211.501 12.60 1 169.60 ! 12.00 J 24.00 109.00 ) 23.005 71.00 169.00 18.00 15.00 74.00 108.00 , 46.00 } 4.00' 15.00 27.00 101.00) 66.70 5 288.00 61.00 173.00 161.00 6.00 20.00 73.00 166.90 6.00 80.00 200.00 $3,000,000 3,491,735 800,000 133,474 2,570,820 33,179,380 480,000 2,771,698 480,000 2,000,000 6,500,000 3,000,000 2,500,000 3,000,000 6,318,719 433,333 640,000 7,108,111 10,000,000 2,620,000 14,201,719 8,719,551 18,571 320,000 2,003,541 1,051,150 350,000 2,500,000 6,000,000 2,977.10 $121,162,301 60.00 14.00 60.00 i 204.001 $1,500,000 600,000 2,000,000 63.00 ! 60.00 f 20,000,000 100.00 1 30.00 J 243.00 11,563,225 45.00 2,103,760 74.00 91.00 138.00 33.00 24,116,219 19.60 32.40 182.00 11.00 7,910,410 308.75 , 252.20 J 146.50 ' 32,319,457 4.00 100,000 25.00 1,000,000 730,000 128.00 6,000,000 37.00 2,000,000 30.00 866,668 12.00 480,922 13.00 102,193 3.50 100,000 148.00 12,419,722 46.60 2,106,000 86.00 3,000,000 RAILROADS — LENGTH — COST. 215 Corporate Title* of Companies. Length in Milet. Total. Completed. Cost of Road and Equip- ment. $1,600,000 991,816 1,000,000 11,940,000 4,000,000 2,500,000 100,000 9,500,000 $1,870,000 18,509,622 600,000 1,000,000 200,000 6,422,712 1,620,000 210,000 1,200,000 985,200 2,742,908 2,500,000 6,000,000 $60,358,723 17. Peo.A Rock Island (incl.CoalVal.R.R.) 90.00 Pittsb., Ft. Wayne & Chic. (Pa.,0.&la.) 18.00 18. Rockford, Rock Island & St. Louis, . 400.00 19. St. Louis, Alton and Terre Haute, . 175.00 St. Louis Branch, 20.00 Belleville Branch, 14,80 90. St. Louis, Jacksonville and Chicago, 151.00 Hopedale to Peoria, 23.00 91. St. Louis, Vand. & Terre Haute (prog.) 163.00 92. Sycamore and Cortlandt, .... 6.00 8S. Toledo, Peoria and Warsaw, . . . 230.00 Burlinston Branch, 19.00 Toledo, Wab.A Western (Ohio&Ind.) 212.40 Naples Branch, 4.00 Keokuk Branch, 41.20 41.20 j- 26,000,000 Naples to Hannibal, 43.00 Decatur to East St. Louis, . . . 105.00 24. Western Union (Wis.) 112.00 Roads not named above, estimated at 2,000.00 600.00 20^000^000 Total, 7,186.45 4,707.95 $277,559,542 Statk or Wucoifnir. Chicago and Milwaukee (111.) . . , 40.00 Chicago and Northwestern (lU.) . . 174.20 Madison Line, 48.00 Keuosha Line, 40.00 1. Dubuque, PlattevilleA Monroe (prog.) 56.50 9. LaCrosse, Trempeleau & Presc't (prog.) 27.00 Z. Manitowoc & Mississippi (progress) 220.00 4. Milwaukee and St. Paul, 196.00 Portage Line, 95.00 Berlin, Omro & Winneconne Line, 68.00 Watertown & Madison Line, . . 38.00 6. Prairie du Chien Division, .... 193.00 Monroe Branch, 42.00 6. Mineral Point, 32.90 Belmont Branch, 10.00 7. Platteville and Calamine (progress) . 21.00 ». St. Croix A Lake Superior (project) . 133.00 Bayfield Branch, 90.00 9. Sheboygan and Fond du Lap, . . . 43.00 Western Union (111.) 69.00 10. West Wisconsin (progress) .... 153.00 Roads being constructed and par- , tially complete, not included in { 1,000.00 above, estimate ' Total, 2,779.60 1,490.6 Statk or Minnesota. 1. Hastings and Dakota, 200.00 2. Lake Superior and Mississippi, . . 145.00 3. Milwaukee and St. Paul (Iowa) . . 131.00 4. St Paul and Chicago, 100.00 5. St. Paul and Pacific, 220.00 Watab Branch, • . 81.00 Pembina Extension (project) . . 305.00 6. St. Paul &. Sioux City (Minn. Valley) 200.00 7. Southern Minnesota, 250.00 8. Stillwater and St. Paul, 18.00 9. Superior and State Line (project) . 10. Winona and St. Peter, 150.00 Total, 1,800.00 823.00 Statk or Iowa. 1. Burlington, Cedar Rapids A Minn., 300.00 67.00 9. Burlington and Missouri River, . . 279.14 979.14 3. Cedar Falls and Minnesota, . . . 81.00 81.00 4. Cedar RapidsA Miss. Riv.(CJtN.W.)271.60 271.60 5. Central Railroad of Iowa, .... 200.00 43.00 6. Chicago, Iowa & Nebraska (C.&N.W.J 81.30 81.30 7. Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, . 310.50 310.50 Oskaloosa Branch, 113.00 60.00 8. Council Bluffs and St. Joseph, . . . 62.00 62.00 9. Des Moines Valley, 162.50 162.60 Extension to Fort Dodge, . . . 81.50 81.50 W. Dubuque and Sioux City, . . . 142.88 142.88 11. Duhuuue South Western, .... 54.76 54.76 12. Iowa Falls and Sioux City 183.00 119.50 13. Keokuk and St. Paul, 61.50 44.00 14. McGregor and Missouri River,. . . 28a00 93.30 16. Milwaukee and St. Paul (Minn.) . . 84.60 84.60 16. Sioux City and Pacific (Nebraska,) . 80.00 80.00 IT. St. Louis and Cedar Rapids, . . . 200.00 42.25 ToUI, 3,219.23 2,140.83 Statk or Missotnu. 1. Cairo & Fulton (owned by St. L. & Iron Mountain) 76.79 37.00 9. Chariton and Randolph (progress) . 40.00 3. Chilicothe and Brunswick, .... 36.00 86.00 4. Chilicothe, Leon & D. Mo'ns (project) 133.00 5. Hannibal & Cent. Missouri (Moberly) 70.00 6. Hannibal and St. Joseph 206.00 206.00 , Quincy Branch and Bridge, . . 15.00 15.00 S Cameron & Kansas City Branch, 54.00 64.00 ' 7. Missouri Valley, 130.00 130.00 8. North Missouri, 233.25 233.25 , Western Extension, 125.75 125.7*5 Columbia Branch, 22.00 22.00 * 9. Osage Valley & Southern Kansas, . 150.00 25.00 10. Pacific of Missouri, 283.00 283.00 $3,500,000 12,500,000 3,402,000 11,500,000 1,750,000 4,858,900 15,000,000 6,000,000 4,000,000 6,257,043 1,700,000 4,000,000 1,320,000 4,000,000 2,375,000 3,000,000 1,600,000 $85,762,943 $897,168 400,000 1,000,000 133,000 700,000 16,760,000 6,209,000 17,500,00« 600,000 16,621,953 Corporate Titles of Length in MUes. Cost of Road Companies. Total. Completed. *"'° £gutp- 12. St.Louis, Chilicothe&Omaha (project) 140.00 * 'i^OOO 13. St. Louis and Iron Mountain, . . . 195.00 195.00 Pilot Knob Branch, n.oo 11 on S l9ftn«fMVi Potosi Branch. ....... 4.00 4m J "»''<^>''<" 14. South West Pacinc, 327 00 110 fMI nKrinnt^ 15. Tebo and Neosho (project) . . '. '.mZ '""•"" ''?^'§2S Roads not included in above, probably 800.00 200.00 6,00o|o00 "^Oi^i 3,261.79 1,827.00 $88,372,121 Statk or Kansas. 1. Atchison, Topeka A Santa Fe (prog.) 250.00 60.00 ftl ono ftOft 2. Central Branch, Union Pacific, .. 230.00 15 00 6 50o'Z 3. Kansas City and Santa Fe, ... t.,500,000 4. Kansas City & Neosho Valley (prog.) 200.00 200,006 6. Kansas Pacific, 405.00 405.00 ) „, Leavenworth Branch, .... 31.00 31.00 s 21,800,000 6. Lawrence, Olanthe A Kansas City, . 7. Leavenworth, Atchison AN. Western, 21.50 21.50 633 500 8. Leavenworth, Lawrence A Galvest'n, 160.00 28.00 840*000 9. St. Joseph and Denver City, . . . 100.00 40.00 L250.'oo0 10. Missouri River, 26.00 26.00 1 000 000 11. Missouri River, Fort Scott A Gulf, . 152.00 100.00 4W0OO 12. South Branch, Union Pacific, . . . 260.00 75.00 2,600,000 Total, 1,601.50 930.60 $39,623,500 Statk or Coi/>rado. Union Pacific, East.Division (Kansas) 300.00 100.00 $4,000,000 Union Pacific, Denver City Br. ( Dak. ) 60.00 50.00 2,OOo'ooo Total, 35Q.00 150.00 $6,000,000 Statk of Nkbraska. 1. Union Pacific (Dakota and Utah). .420.00 420.00 $25,000,000 2. Sioux City and Pacific (Iowa) . . . 29.00 29.00 1,450^000 Total, 449.00 449.00 $26,450,000 Tkrritory or Utah. CentralPacificfCal. A Nevada) . .100.00 100.00 $5,000,000 Union Pacific (Neb. & Dakota) . . 205.00 205.00 10,000,000 1. Utah Central, 60.00 60.00 3,000,000 Total, 365.00 365.00 $18,000,00d Tkrritort or Wyoming. Union Pacific (Nebraska & Utah). .510.00 510.00 $40,800,000 Denver City Branch (Colorado) . . 50.00 50.00 2,500,000 ToUl, 660.00 660.00 $43,300,000 Statk or Nevada. Central Pacific (California and Utah). . 390.00 390.00 $15,500,000 Total, 390.00 390.00 $15,50o]oO« Statk or CAuroRNiA. 1. California Central, 21.80 21.80 $1,000,000 2. California and Oregon (progressing) • 274.00 100.00 5,000,000 3. California Pacific, 100.00 62.00 } o nnn ^aa Marysville Branch (progress) . . 45.00 J d,uu(»,uw 4. Central Pacific (Nevada and Utah) .138.00 138.00 18,800,000 6. Headsburg ( project) 6. Feather Riv. A Beckwourth Pass (project) 7. Los Angeles and San Pedro,. . . . 21.00 21.00 1,000,000 8. Napa Valley, 40.00 40.00 1,600,000 9. North Beach and Mission, .... 3.50 3.50 200,000 10. Northern California, 26.00 26.00 1,300,000 11. Omnibus (San Francisco) .... 3.80 3.80 200,000 12. Placerville and Sacramento, , . . 37.00 26.00 1,200 000 13. Sacramento Valley, 22.50 22.50 1,800,000 14. San Francisco and Alameda, . . . 26.00 14.00 600,000 15. San Fran. A Humboldt's Bay (project) 21 0.00 16. San Francisco and Oakland, . . . 4.00 4.00 100,000 17. San Francisco and San Jose, . . . 50.00 60.00 2,000,000 Southern Extension (project) . . 600.00 30.00 1,500,000 18. San Francisco and Washoe (project) . 92.00 San Rafael & San Quentou (progressing) 19. South San Francisco, 4.00 4.00 100,000 20. Stockton and Copperopolis, .... 35.00 350,000 Stockton A Tulare Valley (project) . 21. Western Pacific, 120.00 120.00 6,000,000 22. Yuba Valley, 24.00 24.00 1,000,000 ^mln?,°LtSe,''^.'''.'^*"'? *!"*!' J ^00.00 100.00 6,000,000 Total, 2,397.60 810.60 $46,650,000 Statk or Orkoon. 1. Cascades Transit, 6.00 6.00 $200,000 2. Dalles and Deschutes, 13.50 13.50 500,000 3. Oregon Br. of Central Pacific (project) — — — 4. Oregon Central, East side (project) . — — — 6. Oregon Central, West side (project) . — — — 6. St. Helen's A Hillsboro' ( progress) . — — — 7. Salem & McMinnville (progress) . , — — — 8. Salt Lake A Columbia River (project) — — — Roads including above in progress ) g.OOi.OO 100.00 6,000,000 and completed, estimate, . . S ''"""™ ^ ^ Total, 2,019.50 119.50 $5,700,000 216 RAILROADS LENGTH — COST. KECAPITULATION OF RAILROADS, Built and Building, with Cost of Roads and Equip- ment, by States, to Jan. 1, 18T0. Cost of States, &c. Miles of Road. Road and Total. Open. Equipment. Maine, 940.79 672.0t $21,183,110 New Hampshire,. 185.32 685.32 22,642,630 Vermont, 653.09 613.09 28,787,926 Massachusetts,.. 1,569.75 1,483.70 74,699,443 Rhode Island, .. . 121.47 121.47 5,132,672 Connecticut,.... 806.94 698.57 27,359,017 New York, 4,735.91 3,636.22 209,001,671 New Jersey, ... . 1,023.65 989.65 74,602,735 Pennsylvania,... 6,878.36 5,014.45 300,5^6,508 Delaware and E. Maryland,.... 455.50 292.50 8,773,637 Maryland, other than above, .. . 730.02 493.52 31,814,659 West Virginia,... 723.75 364.75 27,869,315 Virginia, 2,049.11 1,482.94 49,886,481 North Carolina,.. 1,552.97 1,129.67 29,505,425 South Carolina, . . 1,439.17 1,089.97 27,348,817 Georgia, 2,095.41 1,694.70 36,875,552 Florida, 613.20 440.20 9,883,981 Alabama, 2,039.80 1,036.00 36,421,163 Mississippi, 920.00 920.00 24,919,504 Louisiana, 928.30 414.50 17,385,223 Texas, 2,529.25 572.25 17,006,000 Arkansas, 897.00 86.00 4,310,000 Tennessee, 1,876.53 1,435.53 46,918,448 Kentucky, 1,402.85 849.55 33,511,746 Ohio, 4,613.96 3,723.89 190,424,507 Michigan, 2,293.26 1,198.76 48,793,418 Indiana, 5,331.10 2,977.10^ 121,162,301 Illinois, 7,186.45 4,707.95 217,559,542 Wisconsin, 2,779.60 1,490.60 60,358,723 Minnesota, 1,800.00 823.00 27,860,000 Iowa, 3,219.28 2,140.83 85,762,943 Nebraska, 449.00 449.00 26,450,000 Wyoming Terr'y, 560.00 560.00 43,300,000 Missouri, 3,261.79 1,827.00 88,372,121 Kansas, 1,601.50 930.50 39,623,500 Colorado, 350.00 150.00 6,000,000 Utah Territory, . . 365.00 365.00 18.000,000 Nevada, 390.00 390.00 19J500,000 California, 2,397.60 810.60 46,650,000 Oregon, 2,019.50 119.50 5,700,000 Av. to each State, 5,522.10 1,835.10 $95,850,000 Recapitulation by Sections. North East, 4,877.36 4,274.22 $179,804,798 Middle East, 14,547.19 10,791.09 652,618,525 South East, 7,749.86 5,837.48 154,000,257 Gulf and S. West, 10,573.93 5,294.03 180,472,084 North Interior,.. 33,095.94 20,828.63 949,667,055 Pacific and West, 5,522.10 1,835.10 95,850,000 Total, Jan. 1, '70, 76,366.38 48,860.55 2,212,412,719 In the following statement is shown the increase in railroad development in the several sections dur- ing the year 1869 : Sections. Miles of Road. Road and _ Projected. Opened. Equipment. North East 64.37 254.11 $17,275,764 Middle East, 3,538.54 1,026.59 85,129,307 South East, 293.22 185.57 14,978,130 Sections. Miles of Road. Projected, Opened. Gulf & S. West,. . 1,527.45 223.45 N. Interior, 8,656.60 3,976.55 189,000,824 Pacific and West, 366.10 922.10 29,664,000 Cost of Road and Equipment. 22,659,653 Av. to each sec'n, 13,446.28 6,588.37 $358,707,678 The annual progress of railroad building since, in 1827, the commencement was made in the construc- tion of the Granite Railroad at Quincy, Mass., to the present time, is shown in the following table : Year. Miles. 1849, 6,350 1850, 7,475 1851, 8,589 1852, 11,027 3 28 41 54 131 576 762 918 Year. 1828, 1829, 1830, 1831, 1832, 1833, 1834, 1835, 1836, 1,102 1837, 1,431 1838, 1,843 1839 1,920 1840, 2,197 1841, 3,319 1842, 3,877 1843, 4,174 1844, 4,311 1845, 4,522 1846, 4,870 1847, 5,336 1848, 5,682 1870, 1853, 13,497 1854, 15,672 1855, 17,398 1856, 19,251 1857, .22,625 1858, 25,090 1859, 26,755 1860, 28,771 1861, 30,593 1862, 31,769 1863, 32,471 1864, 33,860 1865, 34,442 1866, 35,351 1867, 36,896 1868, 38,822 1869, 42,272 . . . 48,860 City Passenger Railroads are not included in the above summary. These are now in general use in all considerable cities, and in numerous instances in places where popula- tion is less dense. Their economical bear- ings are fully recognized, and their popularity is increasing. Boston, New York, Brooklyn and Philadelphia count their street railroad tracks by hundreds of miles. Probably the total is not less than, 3,500 to 4,000 miles. Nor have we included in our statement any account of the second tracks with which most of the leading lines are supplied, nor the sidings and turnouts on all the lines. These may be estimated at 25 per cent, of the length of road, and are being added to yearly. Adding these supplementary tracks to the tabulated mileage, we find that the total length of equivalent single track in use is about 60,000 miles, and if we add to this the equivalent for the city passenger tracks, to nearly 65,000 miles. It is now about forty years since we began to build railroads, and in that time, as before intimated, we have built a greater length than is to be found in the whole of Europe. Progress leads but to new demands and new enter- prises. RAILROADS LENGTH — COST. 217 Tlie following list of City Passenger or Horse Railroads, as they are generally called, is incomplete, giving generally only those which were running at the beginning of 1869, and perhaps not all of these, but no later statistics can be obtained. But this is sufficient to show what progress has been made in the last ten years in this department of transportation. The railroads in this list have a length of about 1,025 miles, and have cost for roads and equipment about $41,- 000,000. CITY PASSENGER RAILROADS. ^S B 7.37 I No. No. 3.25 16.00 31.00 22.00 3.53 10.76 16.00 8.00 91 12 12| Albany, N.Y, . . . Albany St. Freight (Boston,) Mass, 35 Alientown, Pa Atlan. av. & Greenw'd (Brooklyn) N.Y. 80;Baltimore City, Md. So'Bleeckerst. &F. F. (N. Y. C). ..N.Y. . . ' Boston and Chelsea, Mass. 162 40 Broadway (Brooklyn,) N.Y. 791 106 Broadway & 7th A v. (N. Y. C.) . . N. Y. lOi 30; Brooklyn, Bath & Coney Island,. .N.Y. 74.00; 1420 291 Brooklyn City, N.Y. ll.OOj 201| 43 Brooklyn City and Newtown,.... N.Y. 21.001 . . . . I . . , JBrookiyn and Jamaica, N.Y. 12.08 j ! . . .Brooklyn, Hunter's Pt. & Prospect Park I R.R.Co 6.50i 40| 12JBrooklyn,Prosp. P. &FIatbush,..N.Y, 4.28 4 30 Brooklyn & Rockawny Beach,. . .N.Y. 15 21 197 53 1 Buffalo street N.Y. 7.85, . . . . I . . . tBushwick (Brooklyn,) N.Y. 28.52! ! _ I Cambridge (Boston,) Mass. 39!Central City (Syracuse,). 146 --, ,- — . .-. „ N.Y 36.00! 561 149 Cen. P., N. & E. R. (N.Y.C.) ...N.Y 9.20 I ... Cincinnati street, O 200 37 Citizens' (10th & lllh sts.) (Phila.,) Pa. 30 Citizens' (Pittsburg,) Pa, .. . City Passenger (Cincinnati.) O, 18 Coney Island (Brooklyn,) N.Y, ll6DryDock, E. B. & B. (N.Y.C.)... N.Y, .. . Dunkirk and Fredonia, N.Y, Easton and South Easton , Pa, Eighth Avenue (N. Y. City,) N.Y 7.25 9.00 6.50 14 83 22.89 3 50 1.63 18.00 8.00 1.74 15.38 16.37 3.25 34.23 5.40 5.50 5.09 10.00 214 9.00 13.17 2.50 10.47 3.56 5.20 4.03 12.50 3 1.00 3.08 5.11 6.00 42.86 7.42 12 20 3 2.16 7,25 17.05 3.81 9.17 10; 3 872 160 52 30 9 Fair Haven and Westville, Conn ..Fifth Ward (Syracuse.) N.Y. 50 42d St. & Grand st. F. (N.Y.C). . .N.Y. 40'Frankford & Southwark (Phila.). . .Pa. SiGenesee & Water st. (Syracuse,). N.Y. 81 Germantown (Phila.,) Pa. 25 Girard College (Phila.,) Pa. 15 Grand st. & Newtown (Brooklyn,) N.Y. 42 Green and Coates st. (Phila.,) Pa. . . Greenpoint & W'msbg (Brook'n,) N.Y. 23'Harlem Br., Morrisa. & Fordham, N.Y. OjIIarrisburg City Pa. 6 1 Hartford and Wethersfield, Conn. 78!Hest., Maiit. & Fairmount (Phila.,). Pa. , . . {Hoboken and Hudson City, N.J. , . . iHoboken and W^eehawken, N.J. , , . iHudson Av. (Brooklyn,) N.Y. , . . j Jersey City and Bergen Point, N.J. OiKingston and Rondout, N.Y. 21 Lombard and South St., (Phila.,).. .Pa. 9iLowell Horse, Mass. 32 Lynn and Boston, Mass. Maiden and Melrose (Boston,) Mass. Marginal Freight (Boston,) Mass. Medford SiCharlestown (Boston,) Mass. Merrimac Valley, Mass. Metropolitan (Brooklyn.) N.Y. l.'jOJ Metropolitan (Boston',) Mass. 47] Middlesex (Boston,) Mass. 52 1 Ninth Avenue (N. Y. City,) N.Y. 4 Northampton & W'mburg, Mass. 2iNorth Woburn (Boston,) Mass. 13! Oakland & E. Liberty (Pbg.) Pa. 28 (Orange and Newark N.J. . . . [Pas-^enger (Cincinnati,) O. SlPeople's street (Scranton,) Pa. 1 . 1.1 1^ 139,414 72,674 500,000 1,747,127 110,000 302,050 522,895 156,838 1,164,204 569,620 900,000 110,000 200,000 2,100,000 99,850 1,500,000 496,000 537,944 434,600 214,489 318,909 264,982 731,671 29,758 1,627,021 179,635 234,045 13 645,925 772,303 42,605 24,275 1,455,161 152,917 27,533 1,041,204 762,491 54,200 562,270 171,712 200,000 236,220 239,063 60,120 180,000 472,687 101,535 78,989 165.627 69,416 207,587 60,246 177,624 27,500 50,241 361,500 1,543,729 522,834 468,322 300,000 27,657 105,457 682,438 100,000 110,907 150,000 31,500 278,000 254,600 144,600 50,000 262,200 727,800 21,130 1.065.200 192,750 176,000 500,000 1,200,000 34,815 26,000 1,000,000 150,000 26,170 748,000 491,750 42,500 112.245 170,000 170,000 150,000 113,230 41,995 180,000 306,390 200,500 75,000 90,000 55,830 200,000 177,700 21,000 50,000 194.000 1,250,000 400,000 797,320 300,000 20,950 59,500 289,550 100,000 104,028 Earnings. •O.Q 40,000 1,814 694,000 35,000 1,600,000 80,000 300,000 200,000 278,000 300,000 45,000 186,000 2,000 150,000 6,000 626,000 56,300 218,000 700,000 500 203,000 260.000 200,000 9,000 350,000 5,000 57,580 12,191 40,7131 302,566 8,800 29,097 126,662 664,652 7,538 24.517 1,197,309 14,372 134,614 2,093, 1,487 2,500 109,500 5,040 94 33,644 70,020 20,621 99,734 20,508 18,645 512,962 7,700 19,587 ' '2,448 400 30,000 100,000 130,000 9,350 165,700 74,000 62,500 50,000 52,600 6,500 191,966 91,902 167,000 8,000 17,000 380,000 2,500 2,063 3,292 9,272 10,560 2,080 48.048 12,810 7,000 177,164 38,917 4,429 43,094 26,500 227,369 139,864 131,637 669,174 8.721 10,444 804,791 6,761 341,781 299,228 8,653 322,439 117,342 72,870 187,103 63,945 9,272 4,724 20,971 70,353 29,240 153,658 24,472 18,014 34,108 765,981 206,640 95,848 13,884 4,174 49,929 147,327 16,003 8 Loss. 3,093 51 .700 1,193 28,e82 184,914 Loss. 283,938 38,422 3,018 9,021 17,427 72 89.058 4j 18,812 95,87 31,708 Loss. 135,905 3,443 3,732 190,391 8.5,664 56,713 159 85,644 25,119 .5,321 22.887 Loss. Loss. 1,055 2,170 9,702 3,411 2,240 2,249 6,299 135,284 16,659 595 562 808 24,479 Loss. Value of Shares, p. c. 32.1 24.5 H 10.0 $ 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 ,100 100 1 100 100 lioo 100 ;ioo 100 100 100 100 50 100 100 10 100 100 194 44 100 100 100 100 218 RAILROADS LENGTH COST. CITY PASSENGER RAILROADS. I > '3 m. 7.07 5. 8.50 8.25 5.20 6. 5 8.00 10.50 7.87 3. 1600 33.00 5.62 8.37 3.61 6.43 2.50 6.74 2.07 4.38 7,25 18.00 No. 27] 50 140 153 80 92 55 48 96 4', 597 485 110 657 265 13 20 10 200 1422 3.47 12.30 4.50 15.50 2.^ 15.50 5.80 13.50 4.38 1.02 2.76 4.06 449 85 20 441 ! Philadelphia City (C. & W.) Pa. Philadelphia and Darby, Pa. Philadelphia and Gray's Ferry, ....Pa. Pittsburg, Allegheny & Manchester,.Pa. Pittsburg and Birmingham, Pa. Portland Me. Quincy (Boston,) Mass. Ridge Av. & Manayunk (Phila.,) . .Pa. Rochester and Brighton N.Y. Salem and Danvers Mass. Schuylkill River (Phila.,) Pa. Second Avenue (N. Y. City,) . . . .N.Y. 2d and 3d street (Phila.) Pa. 17th and 19th street (Phila.,) Pa. Sixth Avenue (N. Y. City,) NY. Somerville (Boston,) Mass. South Boston Mass. Stoneham street (Boston,) Mass. Sub-Urban (Boston,) Mass. Syracuse and Geddes, N.Y. Syracuse and Onondaga, N.Y. 10th & nth sts., (Citizen's Ph.) Pa. Third Avenue (N. Y. City,) N.Y. 13th and 15th streets (Phila.,) Pa. Troy and Albany N.Y. Troy and Lansingburg, N.Y. Troy and Cohoes, N.Y. Union (Boston,) Mass. Utica, Clinton and Bingham, N.Y. Van Brunt st. (Brooklyn.) N.Y. Watervliet (Albany,) N.Y. West Hoboken N.J. West Philadelphia, Pa. Wilkesbarre and Kingston, Pa. Williamsport, Pa. Winnisimmet (Boston,) Mass- Worcester, Mass 11 $ 446,265 250,419 293,548 143,123 108,488 160,300 77,640 179,635 74,000 182,845 47,464 1,452,393 628,843 116,918 1,786,977 75,000 401,030 39,344 95,000 25.978 31,000 179,635 2,745,277 72,463 363,967 70,000 311,879 305,828 87,000 297,145 100,000 571,055 92,333 20,867 62,152 89,573 9 225,000 160,000 285,307 124,000 82,000 160,300 71,600 120,500 59,000 150,000 50,000 800,000 573,387 130,000 750,000 75,000 400,000 33,000 5,000 25,000 31,000 192,750 1,170,000 44,700 250,000 70,000 200,000 121,400 75,000 240,000 40,000 375,000 50,000 15,600 57,250 75,800 .SO $ 200,000 89,000 5,500 23,000 10,600 66,434 63,300 15,000 32,100 700,000 109,300 250,000 25,000 1,500,000 100,000 30,200 200,000 12,000 131,000 60,000 100,000 5,000 72,000 I? i' 11 21,265 16,950 30,082 57,592 11,561 170,962 37,468 12,047 1,500 5,000 13,978 81,095 132,265 1,200 1,612 4,000 15,000 8,500 1,127 26,000 Earnings. 250,557 40,374 87,643 133,266 70,706 45,007 36,111 31,490 32,912 512,666 524,611 79,754 625,341 209,164 10,201 14,381 7,884 227,369 1,257,476 16,844 154,582 373,103 17,925 117,593 321,374 13,883 3,565 4,200 8 45,270 11,622 16,274 15,798 8,481 12,809 Loss. 11,290 Loss. 71,706 177,857 11,569 140,808 4,500 20,976 Loss. Value of Shares. p. C. 20. 4. 7. 7.5 7.3s 7. 4,781 2,199 95,876 274,584 Loss. Loss. Loss. 14,148 3,201 31,390 43,748 5,882 1,319 3,740 lis J*- i Ph $ $ 50 15 20 20 50 25 50 31 50 41 100 100 100 100 50 25 100 100 100 100 .50 10 100 100 50 30 50 13 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 m 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 .50 .50 ,50 50 25 25 100 100 100 100 ■3 45i 12 20^ 41 90 197i 18i 103 61 RAILROADS LAND GRANTS EXTENT AND COST. 219 The expenditure of this vast sum for rail- ways within a period of little more than forty years, and more than half of it within the last ten — an expenditure amounting to over one hundred dollars for each inhabitant of the average population of the United States, daring that period — is without a precedent in the world's history. Had this been accom- plished in a country as old and rich as En- gland, and where capital had accumulated and was constantly seeking avenues of invest- ment, it would still have been wondei-ful, but it has been done in a country whose whole valuation of real and personal estate in 1860 was, by the most liberal tables, only $16,- 519,616,068, and less than half this was per- sonal property, so that the cost of the rail- roads of the United States up to 1870, is about three-sevenths of the entire personal property of the United States in 1860. That there has been a vast increase in our national wealth within the past ten years, no one can doubt, and this increase undoubtedly makes the present valuation of personal property sixteen or seventeen thousand millions of dol- lars, but even this is only five or six times the cost of the railroads. That many of them are not worth to-day what they cost, perhaps not the half of it, is undoubtedly true, but, on the other hand, a considerable number are worth nearly double their cost, and will con- tinue to increase in value. We might be led to suppose, reasoning from analogy, that so great an absorption of capital in the construction and equipment of railroads would have rendered it scarce for other purposes ; but, owing to the fact that the railroads in this country have for the most part been the pioneer influences in de- veloping the settlement, and stimulating the production of crops, manufactures, and min- ing products, capital has not only not been rendered more scarce by their construction, but has been greatly increased, and is con- stantly becoming more plentiful. Prior to 1860, there were but seven railroads in the United States with a capital stock of ten million dollars or more, and not one with twenty millions ; now there are fifty which have cost more than ten millions, and fifteen ranging between twenty and one hundred millions. Our railroad indebtedness, like our national bonds, is, much of it, held in Europe. The stock and bonds of the Boston and Al- bany, the Erie, Atlantic and Great Western, Lake Shore, Ohio and Mississippi, Illinois Central, Chicago and Northwestern, Kansas Pacific, Union Pacific, Central Pacific, the leading Southern roads, and some others, are very largely held in Europe, and some of them are entirely controlled by foreign influ- ences. It is partly on this account that hith- erto foreign and especially English rails have been so largely used for their construction, often to the very great detriment of the roads. From 1840 to 1857, 3,004,130 tons of rails were imported from Great Britain, at a cost of about $150,000,000, paid for, to a consid- erable extent, in railroad bonds, at prices considerably below par. From 1857 to 1869, (both inclusive,) 1,717,222 tons more were imported, at a cost of somewhat more than $75,000,000. Within a few years past, it has been found that steel rails possess great advantages over iron, and they are beginning to be extensively adopted, the great roads laying them as fast as they can without dis- turbing their trafiic. Over 50,000 tons of these rails were laid in 1869, of which 35,000 tons were foreign, and between 15,000 and 16,000 tons American. It is estimated that not far from 90,000 tons will be laid in 1870, of which probably two-thirds will be Amer- ican steel, the best qualities of which are worth from $100 to $120 per ton. The most important single article of freight transported by the railroads is coal ; several very exten- sive railroads, particularly the Philadelphia and Reading, the Philadelphia and Erie, the Delaware and Lackawanna, the Lehigh Val- lep, the Lehigh and Susquehanna, Lacka- wanna and Bloomsburg, the Morris and Essex, the New Jersey Central, and the Baltimore and Ohio, are almost wholly supported by this traflSc, while many others do a very large coal business. The employment of coal as fuel, though known some years before, was not attempted to any great extent prior to 1820. The following table shows how great- ly it has been developed since that time, and particularly within the past ten years. There has been, it will be noticed, an increase of more than three hundred per cent, in each successive decade. Though there will be no such increase in the future in the anthracite coal production, the bituminous and semi- bituminous coals will develop even more rap- idly for many years to come. Coal of all descriptions sent to market Tons. from 1820 to 1830, 636,903 From 1830 to 1840, 5,377,540 From 1840 to 1850, 15,094,132 From 1850 to 1860, 46,139,090 From 1860 to 1870, 161,050,916 Total tons, 228,299,256 220 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. This, at an average value of $5, gives $1,141,496,280. The investment in rail- roads and canals to transport to market the 18,308,316 tons of coal forwarded in 1869, is not less than $300,000,000. It is true that only about three-fourths of the traffic of these railroads and canals is coal, but nine-tenths of the remaining one-fourth has grown out of the coal development and transportation. Under the supposition that the coal trans- ported pays the interest on this investment, which is (at six per cent.) $18,000,000, then the 18,308,316 tongi transported in 1869, at a value of $91,500,000, paid 98 cents per ton, or 19.5 per ct., thus making the clear value of the coal sent to market from those fields, $73,500,000. This includes the product of all the coal fields east of the Alleghanies, and also the coal products of the upper Ohio Valley. It is estimated that there were 10,000,000 tons of bituminous and semi-anthracite coals sent to market from the Mississippi Valley and Rocky Mountain coal fields the same year. The annual sale of coal from all these fields is, in round numbers, $140,000,000, and this sum is added to the floating capital of the country as a consequence of the $450,- 000,000 invested in these railroads and canals. In other words, the cost of construction is repaid in three years nearly, and a perpetu- ally increasing fund flows down for the pro- motion of trade, since coal is as much a pur- chasing power for goods as gold. What those roads have done for coal, have the southern roads done for cotton. Formerly the water-courses were the only means of transportation ; and when they were dry or shallow, cotton accumulated at the landings until the next flood. The iron arms now stretch out in all directions, and not only is all the cotton grown added to the market- able value, but new lands are brought into action. The eflfect of railroads upon cotton is seen in the following table, which shows the miles of railroad open in ten cotton states, and the quantity of cotton produced : — Miles of Cotton crop, road. Bales. 1841.. 662 1,634,945 1842 Idl 1,683,574 1843 848 2,378,875 1844 932 2,030,401 1845 1,109 2,394,503 1846 1,169 2,100,537 1847 ^. 1,303 1,778,651 1848 1,319 2,347,634 1849 1,415 2,728,596 1850 1,415 2,096,706 Total 21,174,422 The value of the 5,914 miles of roads built was not far from $150,000,000, but the value of the cotton produced and brought to market was in the twenty years $2,900,000,- 000. The increase in the value during the last ten years over the former decade was $800,000,000. The war so far changed the current of affairs that the 10,000 miles of completed railways in the south are now, and will be for years to come, engaged in a more general but not less profitable traffic, in which, however, cotton and sugar will be very heavy items. In the western country the results are still more marked, since a country which was a wilderness has, under the influence of rail- roads opening the way, become the source of immense wealth. This influence upon the grain business of Chicago is seen in the following table, which shows the number of miles in operation in Illinois and Wisconsin, Miles of Cotton crop, road. Bales. 1851 1,560 2,355,257 1852 2,010 3,015,029 1853 2,515 3.262,882 1854 3,040 2,930,027 1855 .%362 2,847,339 1856 3,809 3,527,845 1857 4,165 2,939.519 1858 4,751 3,113,962 1859 5,552 3,851,481 1860 5,914 4,675,770 32,519,111 in each year, and the bushels of grain re- ceived in Chicago for corresponding years : — Miles of railroad. Grain receipts. Illinois. Wisconsin. Bushels. 1841 22 .. 40,000 1852 148 20 5,873,141 1853 296 50 6,412,181 1854 1,200 200 12,932,320 1855 1,884 240 16,633,700 1856 2,241 285 21.583,221 1857 2,571 559 18,032.678 1858 2,678 793 20,035^166 1859 2,774 838 21,736,147 1860 2,811 951 40,000,000 1868 4,708 1,451 72,356,982 The cost of the Illinois and Wisconsin railroads (to which should be added 823 miles of Minnesota roads, as tributary to Chicago as the others,) to July, 1868, had been $305,778,265. Since its settlement the government has sold over 20 millions of acres of land in Illinois, and the canals, rail- RAILROADS LAND GRANTS — EXTENT AND COST. 221 roads and state, about 4 millions more. Aside from the large quantities of grain sent directly to St. Louis, New Orleans, Louis- ville, and Cincinnati, and the live stock ship- ments over these roads, the cut meats, but- ter, lard, and lumber, &c., &c., the grain re- ceipts alone, in 1868, amounted to over 150 million dollars. The other receipts were certainly more than as much more, so that one year's production pays the whole cost of the roads. What is true of these roads is equally true of those of Ohio, Indiana, (fee. As an illustration take Chicago as a great railroad centre. The gross earnings of the principal railroads centering there, were, in 1868, as follows: — Gross earnings. 1868. Chicago and Northwestern railroad. . . $13,941,343 Chicago and Alton 4,508,643 Chicago, Burlington and Quincy 6,812,809 Chicago, Iowa and Nebraska 631,782 Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific 5,231,980 Cincinnati, Richmond and Chicago 183,305 Illinois Central 7,817,629 Milwaukee and St. Paul 6,547,646 Mineral Point 102,119 Ohio and Mississippi 2,964,041 Pittsburg, Fort Wayne and Chicago.. . 8,041,181 St. Louis, Alton and Terre Haute 517,941 St. Louis, Jacksonville and Chicago. . . 240,000 Michigan Central 4,716,293 Michigan Southern 5,124,108 Toledo, Peoria and Warsaw 750,625 Toledo, Wabash and Western 4,013,207 Western Union 758,785 Dubuque and Sioux City 963,186 Dubuque and Southwestern 176,217 $73,952,838 In 1860, only eight years previous, the gross earnings of such of these roads as were then in existence were $15,297,155, or but a trifle more than one-fifth of their receipts in 1868. We think no more rapid growth of business has ever been chronicled in any country. While all these rivers, canals, and roads have been busy bringing down produce from swelling numbers of settlers, the traffic of the great outlets has been equally as active. We are to bear in mind that, in 1825, when the Erie canal opened, there was no trans- portation of produce from west to east of the mountains. Bearing that in mind, we shall inspect the following table with interest. It shows the tonnage and revenues of the five great outlets, for the year 1869, as fol- lows : — 14 THROUGH TONNAGE. «oing East. West. J^^J^^^ New York canals 2,121,672 317,459 3,781,684 New York Central 2.34,241 113,833 834,379 New York and Erie 200,000 60,000 869,072 Pennsylvania railroad 129,767 103,839 1,170,240 Baltimore and Ohio railroad 135,127 66,470 897,496 Total 3,820,807 667,601 7,552,871 RECEIPTS. Freight Passengers. J^^JjI^ New York canals (tolls) .... $1 ,723,945 New York Central 3,337, 148 $2,566,369 $6,200,848 New York and Erie 3,108,248 1,154,083 4,394,527 Pennsylvania railroad 3,419,494 1,412,603 5,362,355 Baltimore and Ohio 2,928,411 690,207 3,613,618 Total $14,517,246 $5,823,262 019,571 ,348 Thus these five routes collected, in 1859, $14,517,246 in tolls and freights, and $5,- 823,262 from passenger traffic. Nine years later (in the autumn of 1868) the annual receipts of these five routes were : New York canals ftolls) $5,681,226 New York Central railroad 14,381,303 Erie Railway 14,376,872 Baltimore and Ohio railroad 7,702,229 Pennsylvania Central railroad 17,233,497 Total $59,375,127 Adding to these as being also engaged in the east and west transportation, Pittsburg, Fort Wayne and Chicago 8,041 ,181 Atlantic and Great Western 4,846,048 And we have a total of . . . . $72,262,356 Thus the five routes had increased their business three-fold in nine years, and the whole travel and freight was alinost four times as much as in 1859. This immense length of continued rail now enables an individual to travel from one ex- tremity of the Union to the other without fatigue ; not only are the distances short- ened, but every appliance for comfort makes the journey, even to invalids, com- modious. For this purpose there have been recently introduced on the long lines, sleep- ing-cars, wherein the passenger takes his nat- ural rest while the iron horse is whirling him toward his destination at the rate of 30 miles an hour. This is an improvement upon the invention introduced by Captain Bun- ker, as we have seen on the Hudson river sloops in the early part of the century, whereby gentlemen and ladies could be ac- commodated with beds. They were prob- ably more necessary in that day, however, when it might have been necessary to while away the time in their berths. The rail cars do not go the less rapidly that the passengers are well accommodated. There have been 222 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. jnany instances not only of berths provided but of births taking place in the cars. Such an event happened on the Long Island cars, which were going at the speed of 40 miles per hour, and a grave difficulty sprang up as to where the young gentleman was born, a problem not easily solved, when towns were passed at the rate of a mile in 90 seconds. We have seen that the passenger of the present day does not occupy much time in performing long distances, and that these passages are by no means costly as compared with the inconvenient mode of locomotion in the olden time. Twenty years since it was recorded as a marvel that a gentleman made the distance from Chicago to Albany in 154 hours, or 6 days and 10 hours, and 24 days from New Orleans to Baltimore was recorded as a matter of wonder. Now, 80 hours from New York to New Orleans is the usual mail time, and Chicago and New York are but 29 hours apart. A passenger now goes from Bangor to New Orleans in less time than was allowed, forty years ago, from Boston to New York. Since the completion of the Pacific railway, the time between New York and San Francisco has been reduced (in 1870) to six days and 12 hours; distance 3,344 miles. . It is instructive to look back at the changes the means of locomotion have wrought in the views of passengers. At the close of the last century enterprising con- tractors advertised as follows : — "Philadelphia Stage- Waggon and New York Stage-Boat, performs their Stages twice a Week. John Butler, with his wag- gon, sets out on Mondays from his House, at the Sign of the Death of the Fox, in Strawberry-ally, and drives the same day to Trenton Ferry, when Francis Holman meets him, and proceeds on Tuesday to Bruns- wick, and the passengers and goods being shifted into the waggon of Isaac Fitzran- dolph's the same day, where Ruben Fitz- randolph, with a boat well suited, will ,receive them, and take them to New York that night. John Butler returning to Phil- adelphia on Tuesday with the passengers and goods delivered to him by Francis Holman, will again set out for Trenton Ferry on Thursday, and Francis Holman, &c., will carry his passengers and goods, with the same expedition as above to New York." By this remarkably ingenious plan and xiiction of John Butler, everybody got to his journey's end in the course of time ; "with the same expedition as above," that is, it appears, from Monday morning to Tuesday night, if Ruben Fitzrandolph's boat did not get aground or becalmed, or weather-bound, or driven off, in either of which cases the time of arrival was dubious. But honest John "with his waggon," was soon "cutout." Those "Yankees," immor- talized by Knickerbocker, came down from the north and innovated even upon so ad- mirable an arrangement as was here devised in the tap-room of the " Death of the Fox," Strawberry-ally, under the administration of Jefferson. Ruben's boat with its vicissitudes was abandoned, notwithstanding the attrac- tions of the " Kill van Kull" passage, and a land route through adopted. The attractions of this route were set forth as follows : — " For Philadelphia and Baltimore — SwiFTSURE Mail Stage. — A new line has removed from No 2 Courtlandt street to No. 116 Broadway, and is now running between New York and Philadelphia, through a beautiful country, and on the short and pleasant road through Newark, Springfield, Scotch Plains, Bound Brook, Somerset, Arnwell, Coryell's , Ferry, Cross Road, Crooket Billet, and Jenkintown to Phila- delphia. "To start from New York every day at 10 o'clock, a. m. (Sundays excepted,) lodge at Somerset, and arrive at Philadelphia next day afternoon. The Swiftsure is the only opposition stage from this city to Philadel- phia and Baltimore." There does not appear to have been much time saved by this new plan, any further than that the vicissitudes of the boats were exchanged for those of muddy roads. Spring coaches had, however, supplanted honest John Butler's wagon, since travellers had become more dainty. A few years more brought steam into competition for the use of travellers, and the number multiplied to such an extent, that, on the occasion of the great semi-centennial jubilee anniversary of the National Independence, held July 4, 1825, it was recorded in The Philadelphia Gazette^ that 300 New Yorkers were said to have been in Philadelphia. There were passengers enough to fill 35 coaches ! Great doings, that, in the travelling way ! What would Francis Holman have done with the crowd between Brunswick and Trenton ? Travelling had clearly outgrown his arrange- ments. Well, 35 years more passed on, and railroad connections being constructed, the RAILROADS — LAND GRANTS — EXTENT AND COST. 223 papers of the day contained a new adver- tisement of a trip to Philadelpliia. It was no longer "John Butler with his wagon," but that " John Brougham with his company " would perform as usual in the evening at the New York theatre, then proceed by the cars to Philadelphia, and perform at the theatre there in the same evening, and re- turn to New York to sleep. Thus two per- formances were had in two cities 90 miles distant, and the passage made both ways in the same evening by rail. The ordinary speed between New York and Philadelphia, however, is much below this. Usually four hours are consumed in traveling 87 to 90 miles. The influence of these great improve- ments in travel has been in an eminent de- gree to consolidate population in cities, and these grow the more readily that the dis- tance within which perishable food can be brought to market is so much increased by rapidity of travel. The elements of growth of a city are supplies of food, fuel, and water. Unless these are abundant and cheap, the disadvantages thence arising will counterbalance the geographical and commer- cial advantages of a city. To supply food the circle of country about the city which supplies market-gardens, dairies, etc., must be fertile and accessible. The width of this ring, or, in other words, the area thus devoted, is determined by the speed with which the produce can be transported. The distance of its extreme limits must not be greater than will permit the products to reach the centre in time for use; any improvement that enables a larger space to be gone over in the same time increases the area of dwell- ings and market-lands. The area thus commanded increases as the square of the distances. Thus, if the speed is doubled, the area is four times as large, if it is tripled, the area adapted to city supplies is nine times as great, consequently there will be nine times as much milk, butter, vegetables, food, and produce as before. Now, by railroads and steamships, the supplies of early vegetables and small fruits are brought from Bermuda, St. Augustine, Savannah, Charleston, Nor- folk, the whole eastern shore region, southern New Jersey, Pittsburg, central and western New York, New England, and even from California. The effect of this on distant but accessible fanns is important. If wheat is worth 11.00 in the city, and it cost 25 cents to get it there from a certain farming district, the producer will get 75 cents only. If the cost of transportation be reduced to 10 cents, then there is 15 cents to be divided between the city consumer and the producer. Another very important development of railroads has been for city service. It is now nearly 40 years since, the city of New York having spread over a greater surface of ground than it was convenient to walk over, lines of omnibusses were started to run on the great thoroughfares, to carry passen- gers. The price was, at first, 12-^ cents for a ride any distance on the line. This was gradually reduced to 6 cents. The small cars of the Harlem railroad, which then ex- tended only up to Westchester county, be- gan to cai-ry passengers up as far as Forty- Second street, and in that vicinity, about 1838, but for twelve years after, that was the only road, perhaps, in the United States, car- rying passengers from one part of the city to another in small cars drawn by horses. From 1850 to 1852 there began to be considerable interest in this mode of transit, and the Sixth Avenue, and soon after the Third Avenue line was established. There are now (1870) twenty lines of these city passenger railroads in New York city, employing nearly 8,000 horses, and their gross earnings are not far from $8,000,000 per annum. Brooklyn has 17 lines, some of these occupying several routes, and employs from 4,500 to 5,000 horses. The gross earnings are in about the same proportion. Boston and Philadelphia have from 18 to 20 lines each. Cincinnati and Chicago not quite so many, and all the other cities of 20,000 inhabitants or more have their lines more or less numerous, ac- cording to their needs. These roads have an aggregate extent of nearly 2,000 miles, and carry more than 300 million passengers in a year. Recently, in our largest cities, there is complaint that this mode of transportation is not suflSciently rapid, and the use of dum- my engines, underground tunnel, or arcade railroads, or steam driven roads not crossing the streets on their level, elevated railways in which the cars should be drawn by sta- tionary engines, &c., &c., have been tried, tO' remedy the difficulty. These are all, as yet,, experiments. Thus while the railroads favor the settle- ment of cities, by concentrating in them a large manufacturing and commercial pop- ulation, which can draw cheap food from every section of the Union, they distribute 224 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. that city population cheaply and speedily, enabling them to occupy a much greater ter- ritory, and at the same time concentrate the manufacturing operations in a manner to facil- itate the greatest production of commodities which are required by the producers of food. Railroads here serve a very different pur- pose, and exert a much greater influence in the development of a country, than they do in the densely populated countries of Europe. In Europe, by facilitating travel, they yield a fair though not generally a large profit as investments. Their average cost per mile is much greater than here, but they do, to a limited degree, increase traffic and promote more constant intercourse of the people. Here the railroad is the pioneer of civiliza- tion. It plows its way through the dense forest, the unbroken prairie, or the waterless and almost desert lands, and at every mile of its onward progress, a village springs up, farms are laid out, orchards planted, the fields wave with the golden grain, and pres- ently mines, manufactories, schools, colleges, and churches, are called into existence, all along the line. These enterprises all pay from the start, and increase the national wealth in an almost incredible degree. In September, 1859, the gross income of 257 railroads (all or nearly all" then in existence) in the United States, was $111,203,245 for freight and passengers, or about $4.00 per head for each inhabitant. In January, 1 868, a little more than eight years later, 373 rail- roads reported a gross income of $327,547,- 725, or more than $8,50 to each inhabitant. The reports of 1870 would undoubtedly add not less than twenty-five per cent, to this great aggregate. The number of miles of railroad completed in the United States, up to June, 1869, was almost half the length of railroads in the world. In 1859, the IJnited States had 28,789 miles of railroad, and the entire globe (including the U. S.) 57,653. In January, 1869, the railroads of the world in operation were as follows : — Miles. United States 48,8W, Canada 2,375 Cuba 431 Jamaica 10 Argentine Republic 427 Columbia 49 Brazil 410 Peru 128 Chili 350 England and Wales 10,037 Scotland 2,282 Ireland 1,928 Spain 4,372 France 9.515 Miles. Belgium 1,301 Holland G59 Denmark 220 N orway and Sweden 800 Russia and Poland 3,167 Prussia and N. Germany. 5,764 South Germany 2,861 Austria and Hungary. . . 4,517 Switzerland 820 I»"'y 3,153 Turkey 220 Kgypt 670 British India 5,000 Australia 8.50 It is difficult to arrive with any considera^ ble exactness at the cost of railroads in for- eign countries. The following table is an approximation, except in the United States, Great Britain, and a few other European states where the figures are official, for the beginning of 1869 : — Maes. United States..! 48,860 Great Britain 14,247 France 9,515 Prussia and N. Germany. . . 5,764 Austria and S. Germany . . . 7,388 Belgium 1,301 British America 2,385 Cuba 431 Colombia 49 South America 888 Russia 3,167 Sweden and Norway 800 Switzerland 820 Italy 3,153 Spain 4,372 Turkey 220 Africa 670 India 5,000 Australia 850 Other small States 880 Cost. Cost per mile. $2,212,413,000 $45,280 2,511,314,435 176,250 1,773,400,000 188.690 380,424,000 6(),000 499.000,000 71,000 118,911,400 91,400 119,950,000 50,000 19,395,000 45,000 7,350,000 150,000 62,160,000 70,000 285,030,000 90,000 72,000,000 90,000 73.800.000 90,000 315,300.000 100,000 304.488,785 70,000 26,400.000 120,000 80,400,000 120,000 371,730,220 75,000 63,750.000 75,000 61,600.000 70,000 Total railroads of the world 111,186 111,187 «9,430, 116,840 $92,681 The estimated amount of these items in 1851 was: Miles of railroad, 48,114, cost, $3,823,200,814, cost per mile, $79,000. The greatest extension of the railroad system has in all cases been in the countries to which there is the greatest immigration. British America, South America, India, Australia, Russia, Italy, Spain, and Egypt, are the foreign countries which have increased their railroads most rapidly. With most of these countries (we may perhaps except Australia, India and Russia) there is a limit which must, in a few years, be reached beyond which the construction of railroads will not be profitable. With the United States, on the contrary, there is no conceivable limit (unless some better method of locomotion should be devised,) to the construction of railroads. Our vast territory, with its rapid- ly increasing population, is constantly re- quiring new routes to bring produce, coal, metals, or manufactures to market, and to transport the tens of millions of passengers and immigrants who must rely on them for transportation to their homes or their busi- ness. We are already adding 7,745 miles a year to our railroads, and shall soon increase to 10,000 miles a year. We have purposely delayed the consider- ation of our railroad routes to the Pacific coast to the close of this article, both be- cause we regard them as in some measure dissevered from the more local railroad routes and because their vastness will be VIEWS ON THE CENTRAL PACIFIC RAILROAD. To those unacquainted with the locality it is impossible to convey by description any adequate idea of the u-regularities of surface which occur in the Sierra Nevada mountains, which are traversed by this line. I. — TRESTLE OPPOSITE AUBURN. The tunneling required has been of small extent. The peculiarity of the line is the very extensive em- ployment of trestle bridgings and- it is with the view of illustrating this that our engravings have been chosen, Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6, being examples of trestle bridging, and No. 3 showing a cutt'ng 63 feet deep and 800 feet long through cemented gravel and sand, of the' consistency of solid rock, and which is 2fO- "• — TRESTLE AND TRTtSIect pond, New York city. The boiler was a twelve gallon pot, with a bit of truck-plank fastened by an iron bar placed transversely. This ■vjas in the year 1796. OLIVER EVANS' ORUKTER AMPHIBOLOS. Thirty feet long and twelve broad. Cylinder five inches in diameter with a nineteen inch stroke. Constructed by Oliver Evans about the year 1804. •THE MACHINERY OP FULTON'S FIKST STEAMBOAT. Imported from England where it was constructed in 1805. Wheels fifteen feet in diameter, cylmdet tvrenty-four inches in diameter, four feet stroke. THE NORTH RIVER, OF CLERMONT. Robert Fulton's first steamboat as she appeared after being lengthened in 1.808. She was launched In 1807, and was run as a regular packet between New York and Albany. Speed four miles per hour, length 133 feet, beam 18 feet, depth 8 feet, tonnage 160. STEAMBOATS. 239 services which the steam engine has rendered to the commerce and prosperity of the west- ern states. In 1811, Messrs. Fulton and Livingston, having established a ship-yard at Pittsburg for the purpose of introducing steam navi- gation on the western waters, built an exper- imental boat for this service — and this was the first steamboat that ever floated on the western rivers. It was furnished with a stern wheel and two masts — for Mr. Fulton be- lieved, at that time, that the occasional use of sails would be indispensable. This first western steamboat was called the Orleans ; her capacity was one hundred tons. In the winter of 1812, she made her first trip from Pittsburg to New Orleans in fourteen days. The first appearance of this vessel on the Ohio river produced, as the reader may sup- pose, not a little excitement and admiration. A steamboat at that day was, to common observers, as great a wonder as a navigable balloon would be at the present. The banks of the river, in some places, were thronged with spectators, gazing in speechless aston- ishment at the puffing and smoking phe- nomenon. The average speed of this boat was only about three miles per hour. Be- fore her ability to move through the water without the assistance of sails or oars had been fuHy exemplified, comparatively few persons believed that she could possibly be made to answer any purpose of real utility. In fact, she had made several voyages before the general prejudice began to subside, and for some months, many of the river mer- chants preferred the old mode of transporta- tion, with all its risks, delays, and extra ex- pense, rather than make use of such a con- trivance as a steamboat, which, to their ap- prehensions, appeared too marvellous and miraculous for the business of every-day life. How slow are the masses of mankind to adopt improvements, even when they ap- pear to be most obvious and unquestionable ! The second steamboat of the west, was a diminutive vessel called the Comet. She was rated at twenty-five tons. Daniel D. Smith was the owner, and D. French the builder of this boat. Her machinery was on a plan for which French had obtained a patent in 1 809. She went to Louisville in the summer of 1813, and descended to New Orleans in the spring of 1814. She after- ward made two voyages to Natchez, and was then sold, taken to pieces, and the en- gine was put up in a cotton factory. The 15 Vesuvius was the next ; she was built by Mr. Fulton, at Pittsburg, for a company, the several members of which resided at New York, Philadelphia, and New Orleans. She sailed under the command of Captain Frank Ogden, for New Orleans, in the spring of 1814. From New Orleans, she started for Louisville, in July of the same year, but was grounded on a sand-bar, seven hundred miles up the Mississippi, where she remain- ed until the 3d of December following, when, being floated off by the tide, she re- turned to New Orleans. In 1815-16, she made regular trips for several months, from New Orleans to Natchez, under the command of Captain Clement. This gentleman was soon after succeeded by Captain John D. Hart, and while approaching New Orleans, with a valuable cargo on board, she took fire and burned to the water's edge. After being submerged for several months, her hulk was raised and re-fitted. She was afterward in the Louisville trade, and was condemned in 1819. In 1818, the first steamboat was built for Lake Erie and the upper lakes, at Black Rock, on the Niagara river, for the late Dr. I. B. Stuart, of Albany, N. Y., by Noah Brown, of New York city. She was a very handsome vessel, 360 tons burden, brig rig- ged, and her engine, on the plan of aBoulton and Watt square engine, was made by Rob- ert McQueen, at the corner of Centre and' Duane streets. New York city ; her cylinder was 40 inches diameter, 4 feet stroke. The materials for making the boiler were sent from New York, and the boiler was made at Black Rock — 9 feet diameter, 24 feet long — a circular boiler, with one return flue, called a kidney flue, seldom, if ever, carry- ing more than nine inches of steam. This steamer was called the Walk-in-the-Watcr, after a celebrated Indian chief in Mich- igan. Her engines were transported from New York to Albany by sloops, and from Albany to Bufl"alo by large six and eight horse Pennsylvania teams. Some of the engine was delivered in fifteen days time, and some was on the road about twenty-five days. The trip from Black Rock, or Bufl'alo, to Detroit, consumed about forty hours in good weather, using thirty-six to forty cords of wood the trip. The price of passage in the main cabin was eighteen dollars; from Buf- falo to Erie (Penn.), six dollars ; to • Cleve- land, twelve dollars ; to Sandusky (Ohio), 240 STEAM. fifteen dollars; to Detroit, eighteen dollars. The strength of the rapids at the head of the Niagara river, between Buffalo and Black Rock, was so great, that besides the power of the engine, the steamer had to have the aid of eight yoke of oxen to get her up on to the lake, a distance of about two land one-half miles. In those days, the pas- senger and freighting business was so small, that one dividend only was made to the owners for the first three years from the earnings of the steamer. In 1821, in the fall, the steamer was totally lost in a terrible gale. On the coming winter, a new steamer was built at Buffalo, by Mr. Noah Brown of New York — a very strong, brig-rigged vessel. She was called the Superior, flush decks fore and aft ; the first steamer, the Walk-in-the- Wa- ter, having had a high quarter or poop deck. Compare the time and expense of travel- ling in those days with the present time ! Mr. Calhoun (now living), the engineer of the Walk-in-the- Water, says, "Every two years I used to return to New York from Buffalo in the fall, and in the spring from New York to Buffalo. I have been three and four days, by stage, to Albany ; never less than three days, and sometimes near five days ; the stage fare was ten dollars to Albany. From Albany to Bufialo, I have been ten days in getting through ; the short- est time was eight days; the stage fare through, was twenty-one dollars. How is it now ? My usual expense in going to Buf- falo from Albany was thirty dollars, includ- ing meals and sleeping." Such facts show the advantages we have obtained from the use of steam in our river navigation. The boats that then plied upon the Hud- son river, would not be sufficient to carry the passengers' baggage of the present day. The first boat was only 160 tons, while the New World, built in 1847, was of 1400. The latter has made the trip from New York to Albany in seven hours and fifteen min- utes, including nine landings of say five minutes each ; the actual running time being six hours and twenty minutes; dis- tance, one hundred and fifty miles — per- formed by the North River in thirty-six hours. The application of the steam engine to navigation, has been successful by three methods only: the side wheel, the stern wheel, and the propeller. The side wheel was known to the ancients, and was used in tonnection with a windlass, turned by men. as a means of propulsion, by the Romans, in their war galleys. It was first partially applied to steam navigation by Robert Ful- ton, but since his day it has undergone vast improvement. As at first constructed, it consisted of a double-spoked water-wheel, suspended by a shaft with no outside bear- ing, which shaft, being of cast iron, was very liable to break. The outside bearing and guard were subsequently invented by Fulton, as appears from his specification of patent. The wheels being totally un-covered, were found to throw w^er upon deck, and a dash-board was put up to prevent it, which was in time replaced by the present wheel- house. The paddle was next surrounded with a circular brace, or rim, as at present in use. In Fulton's first boat, the wheels could, at will, be disconnected from the en- gine, but this plan went out of use in order to simplify the machinery, after the crank shaft was adopted, connected directly with the engine. Various side wheels have been patented, that are so constructed as to prevent the lift of water as the bucket rises there^ from. One on the Richard Stockton ap- pears to work well, but their complication, cost, and liability to get out of repair, have prevented their general introduction. The stern wheel was first thought of by Jonathan Hull, of England, in 1736, as suf- ficiently appears from drawings thereof pub- lished by him; but it certainly was first practically applied by Robert Fulton, in the steamboat Orleans, of which we have al- ready spoken. This wheel is now in almost universal use on our western rivers, as it is peculiarly adapted to boats drawing but lit- tle water. The wheel is suspended at the stern, and is sometimes covered with a wheel-house, but more frequently entirely exposed. The propeller was first applied to a small steamboat built ^ by John Fitch, and experi- mented with by him under the patronage of Chancellor Livingston, on the Collect Pond in New York. The propeller was a screw or worm. Great improvements have, how- ever, been made in the screw, and to the English we are indebted for some of the most important. Captain Ericsson deserves great credit for his improvements in this respect. The improvements in the screw propellers since 1860, have secured its almost universal use in all sea-going ships, and par- ticularly in war steamers. The new vessels, both armed and unprotected, of the British MAOHINERT OF A STEAM-SHIP— PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE. V^*^ifi3!'//tf^*<7^ MARINE ENGINE. RIVETING THE BOILEIJS. BENDING AND CUTTING ENGINES. CASTING THE CYLINDERS. STEAMBOATS. 241 and American navies, are all propelled by the screw, and so universal has its use be- come in the merchant service, that of the ocean steamers now (1870) sailing from the port of New York, somewhat more than 200 in number, but one or two have paddle- wheels. The Pacific mail steamers, the Liv- erpool and Great Western Steamship Com- pany's ships, and those of the Hamburg and Bremen lines, are fine specimens of the screw steamship, in their roominess, comfort and elegance. It was at first objected to the propellers that they rolled more than the paddle-wheel steamers, and that there was an unpleasant vibration from the rapid revo- lution of the heavy screw on a shaft extend- ing half the ship's length. They were, also, at first considerably slower than the paddle- wheels. These objections have been almost wholly obviated ; the speed of a screw steamer of fine lines is fully equal if not su- perior to that of the best paddle-wheel. They have repeatedly crossed the Atlantic in a little more than eight days, and by some improvements in construction, both of the ships and the screws, the rolling and the vi- bration is greatly diminished. The advant- ages of the propeller were, that in a heavy sea it w^as always submerged, whatever the condition of the ship's lading, while the pad- dle-wheels would be out of water on one side or too deep on the other; the paddles were, also, more exposed to danger of break- age, and when the wind w^as ahead greatly impeded the speed of the ship. The paddle- wheel steamers, also, consumed on an aver- age nearly double the fuel required for the propellers. In war-ships the propeller had the advantage of having its motive power out of harm's way, and of having an unob- structed broadside for firing upon the enemy. The monitors devised by Captain Ericsson, which were propelled by screws, though for the most part intended for coast and harbor defense and oft'ensive warfare only upon forts, &c., demonstrated in the case of the Dicta- tor, Monadnock, and Miantonomoh, that a steamer might be very low in the water, having in fact no appreciable bulwarks, and yet be perfectly sea-worthy, and possess high qualites of speed and ready management in all weathers. The plan of having twin screws, one under each quarter, has been tried in London, by the Messrs. Dudgeon ; the steamers turn more readily and in smaller space, but are not materially faster. The adoption of a feathering screw, or one in which the blades can be turned into a line with the ship's keel, is an improvement in auxiliary propellers where the ship depends upon her sails in favorable winds ; but these vessels are less numerous now than formerly. The insertion of three or more blades of the screw around the periphery of a hollow sphere, attached to the shaft instead of di- rectly to that shaft itself, (Griffith's screw,) or of the insertion of numerous short blades around the periphery of a ring of metal, (Ericsson's screw,) or of having the blades within the periphery, (Carlsrund and Soren- sen's,) or of applying a large proportion of the power nearly parallel to the shaft, by in- serting behind the moving screw a fixed screw having the blades turned in the oppo- site direction, (Rig's,) have each their advant- ages, and their advocates. In the so-called cigar steamers of Ross Winans, and some other similar inventions, one part of the design was the operating of two or three propellers in a line with the steamer's keel, one near the bow, another, amidships, and still a third at the stern. The theory was that the first would overcome the resistance, and the others could propel the vessel at much higher speed than ordinary. The use of the donkey engine or auxihary pump, has been adopted in nearly all of our steam vessels, and is a decided improvement over the old method of filling the boilers by the main engine, as it obviates the diflSculty of working the wheels while lying at the wharf, or stopping from any cause. The Great Eastern was not, at first, supplied with them, but the experience of the great storm in which the monster ship came so near foundering, led to their being introduced at the earliest opportunity. The builder of a steamship who should neglect to furnish don- key engines would now be considered insane. The use of coal in our steamers is now universal upon the Atlantic coast and rivers. John E. Mowatt, the first to establish the tow-boat business, was also among the first to burn coal. His boat, the Henry Eckford, was fitted up for that purpose, but the want of a sufficient draft was the cause of its abandonment after several trials ; this was in 1825. A few years after, Robert L. Stevens tried a blower on his crank boat, the North America. His first blower was of rude con- struction, being made of planks, and placed directly in front of the furnace, under the doors. After his success, the blower came into general use both for coal and wood ; but 242 STEAM. improvements in furnaces have now, in a measure, superseded its use. Mr. Stevens tried several expensive experiments, and many of them proved of value only as lessons to the engineer. While experimenting upon the blower, he caused to be constructed a spiral fan in the chimney, but abandoned it after one or two trials. Placing the boiler on deck was his invention, as also the false bow that made so great an improvement in speed. Tlie present open work walking- beam is also ascribed to him; in fact we may safely say that Robert L. Stevens did more than any other man toward the im- provement of the steam-engine. In the early days of steamboats on the rivers and lakes, there were great fears en- tertained both of explosions and of danger from fire. These apprehensions were not altogether groundless. On the western rivers and lakes, where the boats were fur- nished with high pressure engines, carelessly built, and run with the highest attainable speed, by the use of pitch and other quickly burning fuel, and with prevalent recklessness of human life, explosions were of frequent occurrence, and fires which swept with fright- ful rapidity through the cargoes of cotton or other combustible materials, took place too often. In the Atlantic states, where the en- gines were low pressure and the cargoes less inflammable, they were less common. The first destructive explosion was on board the steamboat Washington, near Point Harmar, on the Ohio river, June 9, 181 6. A consid- erable number were killed, and many others scalded and horribly mangled. The Oliver Ellsworth, a steamboat plying on the Con- necticut river, exploded on that river in 1818, with great loss of life. We have no list of the number of explosions, or of the burning of American steamboats, but the number must have been several hundred, many of them attended with great loss of life, and terrible suffering. Any one whose memory of the events of the past fifty years is distinct, will recall many of these sad scenes, of some of which he had very proba- bly been an eye-witness. Many of these were inevitable under any precautions which could have bxjen adopted ; but others were the result of racing, carelessness, or reckless- ness of humaa life. Still, while there have been many unnecessary disasters, the result of ignorance and mismanagement, there can be no question that the transportation by steamboats is much safer and less productive of loss of life, than the old methods of loco- motion, by stage, wagon, or on horseback, or even by sailing vessel, canal boat, flat- boat, or barge. The number of accidents at last drew the attention of Congress to the subject, and successive bills were passed to endeavor to control and prevent these seri- ous disasters ; but it was not until after sev- eral trials that the present very eflScient sys- tem of inspection was perfected. Since the passage of this act, whose provisions we recite below, the number of these accidents has materially decreased, though we are still occasionally distressed by reports of whole- sale slaughter by the explosion or burning of some great steamer with its hundreds of passengers. Among others to whom great credit is due for their modifications of the steam-engine or some of its parts, Mr. Corliss, of Provi- dence, R. I., of whom we have already spoken; Mr. Learned, of the firm of Lee & Learned, manufacturers of steam fire-engines; Capt. Ericsson ; Mr. Dickinson, equally celebrated as an engineer and as a great patent lawyer ; Mr. Horatio Allen, and several others, have made valuable improvements in the steam- engine. It is due in a great measure to the valuable modifications which these men have introduced in the use of steam and to the simplification and increased perfection of the mechanism of steam-engines, that among the hundreds of thousands of them in use throughout the United States, so few acci- dents occur. The engineers employed are too often, especially on stationary engines, unskilled and incompetent for their business; but most of the engines are so well constructed that they will not give out except from the most outrageous carelessness or stupidity in their management. In the year 1852, an act was passed by Congress, containing provisions against fire, regarding pumps, boats, life-preservers, the transportation of dangerous articles, etc. This act also provided for an inspector of boilers in each district, whose duty it is to test all the boilers in his district, used on board of vessels carrying passengers, once when first constructed, and at least once a year thereafter. The Board of Inspectors were also empowered with the examination of engineers, which duty is set forth in the following section: "W^henever any person claiming to be quahfied' to perform the duty of engineer upon steamers carrying passengers, shall apply for a certificate, the LOCOMOTIVES. 243 Board of Inspectors shall examine the appli- cant, and the proofs which he produces in support of his claim ; and if, upon full con- sideration, they are satisfied that his char- acter, habits of life, knowledge, and experi- ence in the duties of an engineer are all such as to authorize the belief that the applicant is a suitable and safe person to be entrusted with the powers and duties of such a station, they shall give him a certificate to such effect, for one year, signed by them, in which cer- tificate they shall state the time of the exami- nation, and shall assign the appointee to the appropriate class of engineers." It was also provided that nine super- vising inspectors should be appointed by the executive, to carry out the provisions of the act. Since the passage of this law, steam- boat explosions on the Atlantic coast have become almost unknown, and have greatly decreased in the west. With competent inspectors this law is invaluable, and we hope to hail the day when a similar act is passed in every legislature, touching loco- motive and stationary boilers. No one who looks at the immense amount of business done by steam vessels, will ques- tion the advantages obtained by the appli- cation of steam to navigation, still this branch of commerce is as yet in its infancy, and it is our belief that not only will steam supersede sails entirely, but also that the la- borious occupation of rowing will eventually be mainly done by steam. It is unques- tionable that boats requiring four men to pull them can, even now, be much more economi- cally worked by machinery, and certainly run much faster. Their cost need not ex- ceed five hundred dollars. For such small craft the propeller is better fitted than the side wheel. There was a boat of this descrip- tion running in the harbor of Norfolk, for some years, and capable of carrying twelve passengers at eight miles per hour, at the expense of seventy-five cents per day for fuel, and the wages of one man, who could easily do the work and steer the boat. This boat carried passengers to the Great Eastern, when she lay off Old Point Comfort, and appeared like the minnow beside the whale. In 1864, the Navy Department ordered the construction of several steam launches, small boats of about the dimensions of the Captain's boat of a war steamer, to perform the service which had till then been done by the row-boats. It was on one of these that Lieutenant Gushing ran up to the Albermarle and effected her destruction. We have already stated that John E. Mowatt was the first to introduce the tug business on the North river. This was Jonathan Hull's idea; he never dreaming that large vessels could be provided with propelling power, both on account of its weight, the weight of fuel for a voyage, and the danger from fire. This branch of steam navigation has proved very lucrative. With- in the past few years the propeller has here also been substituted. Philadelphia, we be- Heve, was the pioneer in this enterprise, and most of the propeller-tugs were built in that city. We will conclude this chapter with the following statement of the tonnage of steam vessels belonging to the several ports of the United States in 1868, as published in the "Report on Commerce and Navi- ^ gation : " — Atlantic and Gulf Coasts 653,'730.3'7 Pacific Coast 49,895.98 Northern Lakes 144,117.15 Western Rivers 351,671.39 The total steam tonnage of the United States, for the year ending 30th of June, 1868, was 1,199,414.89-95 tons. CHAPTER HI. LOCOMOTIVES. Our second chapter referred more partic- ularly to the application of steam to naviga- tion. In this, we shall endeavor to set forth its advantages in land transportation. Among the earliest experiments upon this subject in America, were those by Oliver Evans, of Philadelphia. The following is his account, published in 1804 : — " I constructed for the Board of Health of Philadelphia a machine for cleaning docks, called the Orukter Amphibolos or Amphib- ious Digger. It consisted of a heavy flat- bottomed boat, thirty feet long, and twelve feet broad, with a chain of buckets to bring up the mud, and hooks to clear away sticks, stones, and other obstacles. These buckets are wrought by a small steam engine set in the boat, the cylinder of which is five inches diameter, and the length of stroke nine- teen inches. This machine was constructed at my shop, one mile and a half from the river Schuylkill, where she was launched. 244 STEAM. She sunk nineteen inches, displacing five hundred and fifty-one cubic feet of water, which, at 62.5 pounds, the weight of a cubic foot, gives the weight of the boat thirty-four thousand four hundred and thirty-seven pounds, which, divided by two hundred and thirteen, the weight of a barrel of flour, gives the weight of one hundred and sixty-one barrels of flour that the boat and engine is equal to. Add to this the heavy pieces of timber and wheels used in transporting her, and the number of persons generally in her, will make the whole burden equal to at least two hundred barrels of flour. Yet this small engine moved so great a burden, with a gentle motion, up Market street and around the Centre Square, and we concluded from the experiment that the engine was able to rise any ascent allowed by law on turnpike ^ roads, which is not more than four degrees." After giving a comparison of the merits of steam and horse power, for moving car- riages on common roads, Evans says : "Add to all this that the steam wagon consumes nothing while standing, will roll and mend the roads, while the horse wagons will cut them up. Upon the whole it appears that no competition could exist between the two. The steam wagons would take all the busi- ness on the turnpike roads. I have no doubt but you will duly appreciate the im- portance of such an improvement, and con- ceive it to be your interest to appropriate the sum necessary to put it in operation. I have invented the only engine that will answer that great purpose, as well as many others for which power may be wanted. It is too much for an individual to put in operation every improvement which he may be able to conceive or invent. I have no doubt that my engines will propel boats against the current of the Mississippi, and wagons on turnpike roads with great profit. I now call upon those whose interest it is, to carry this invention into eff'ect. All which I respectfully submit to your consideration." Thus it will be seen that Mr. Evans not only practically applied steam to locomotion, but fully realized the advantages of his in- vention. The introduction of the railroad prevented the improvements that would naturally have followed so great an inven- tion, and but little has since been done, until within the past three or four years. Mr. Fisher has been one of the most success- ful in his improvements ; his first experiment was in 1853, when he built a small carriage for four persons, which weighed, empty, about one thousand four hundred pounds. The cylinders were ten by four ; boiler, thirty feet of surface, only twenty feet of which could be reckoned effiective, or one foot of surface to about one hundred and ten pounds of total weight. It outran horses, in night races, on the Broadway pavement, and ran at a moderate speed on cobble pavements, but had not steam enough for common roads. The next trial was in 1858, on two steam fire engines, the J. C. Gary and J. G. Storm, the carriages and engines of which w^ere built from his design, the boilers and pumps being designed by others. These engines had heavy boilers and apparatus, and could not be regarded as steam carriages, but only as a demonstration of the practicability of working by steam. Their cylinders are fourteen by seven and a half inches ; wheels, five feet ; the Gary boiler four hundred and eighty feet of heating surface ; that of the Storm three hundred and eighty ; weight of the Gary, empty, fifteen thousand six hun- dred and thirty-six pounds ; the Storm some- what lighter. These engines ran well on pavements, and when fairly in motion tould run on soft ground at six or seven miles per hour. Mr. J. K. Fisher built another steam carriage, completing it in 1861, from which great results were expected ; but the all-en- grossing interest of the war, at that time, prevented its receiving attention, and noth- ing has been heard of it since. A Newark machinist contrived one in which the motive power was an engine and boiler in the form of a man, drawing a wagon, in the front part of which was the water-tank. This excited considerable attention but proved of no prac- tical value. In 1866, a steam wagon with vulcanized rubber ties 1 3 inches wide and 5 inches thick, was run in the streets of Edinburgh, drawing one or two wagons up the steep grades of that city, and its per- formance was entirely satisfactory. The railway itself does not come within the compass of our article; we will state, however, that its origin is unknown, as the remains of a stone tram-road have been found among the ruins of Thebes. Thirty years ago they were still discussing the advantages of canals as compared with railroads in this country ; it is, however, somewhat singular that, with the exception of a mile or two of canal near Cambridge, constructed by the Romans, England had in- LOCOMOTIVES. 245 troduced the entire principle of railroads long before she took up canals. As long ago as 17V 6, and possibly thirty years prior to that time, England had wooden rails in >ome of her collieries. It was not, however, until the year 1825 that the subject was prominently brought forward. The railway project from Manchester to Liverpool was the cause of this new impulse. The rails, prior to 1776, were of wood, placed about four feet apart on sleepers; these wooden rails were then covered with iron plates, and cast iron wheels were adopted instead •of the wooden ones that had been used up to this time. In 1790, the edge rail was invented. From 1802 to 1806, the first effective experiments were made with the locomotive engine. It was not, however, supposed possible that the friction or ad- herence of the plain wheels of such car- riages upon the rail could be sufficient to allow any great weight to be drawn after them, and, therefore, the cumbersome ap- pendage of cog wheels and ratchet wheels, continuous and endless chains, propelling levers, etc., etc., continued to perplex the minds of engineers until about 1814, when it was first discovered that the adhesion of the locomotive carriage, with its plain cast iron wheels, was adequate for every purpose on ordinary railways. The improvement consequent upon this was efiectcd by Mr. Stephenson in the north of England, and for a long time his engmes, with unimportant alterations, were used where fuel was cheap. Those locomotives drew about one hundred tons on a level, at four miles the hour, per- forming the work of about sixteen horses. Their weight was about ten tons, and cost about sixteen thousand dollars. The first railway in the United States was built from Milton to Quincy, Mass., a dis- tance of two miles, in 1826. The Baltimore and Ohio was the first passenger railroad ; it was opened in 1830, a distance of fifteen miles, with horse power. Next in the order of time came the Mohawk and Hudson, from Albany to Schenectady, sixteen miles ; opened for travel also with horse power. The first locomotive engine upon a railway in this country, was built at Stourbridge, England, for the Delaware and Hudson Canal Com- pany, and imported by Mr. Horatio Allen. This engine was called the Lion. Mr. Allen, in a speech not long since, gives a graphic account of the first trip : " It was in the year 1828, on the banks of the Lack- awaxen, at the commencement of the rail- roads connecting the canal of the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company with their coal mines ; and he who addresses you was the only person on that locomotive. The circum- stances which led to my being alone on the engine were these : the road had been built in the summer ; the structure was of hem- lock timber; the rails of large dimensions, notched on caps placed far apart; the tim- ber had cracked and warped from exposure to the sun. After about three hundred feet of straight line, the road crossed the Lacka- waxen creek on trestle-work, about thirty feet high, with a curve of from three hundred and fifty-six to four hundred feet radius. The impression was very general that the iron monster would break down the road, or it would leave the track at the curve and plunge into the creek. My reply to such appre- ^ hensions was, that it was too late to consider the probability of such occurrences; that there was no other course than to have a trial made of the strange animal, which had been brought here at great expense ; but that it was not necessary that more than one should be involved in its fate ; that I would take the first ride alone, and the time would come when I should look back to the inci- dent with great interest. As I placed my hand on the throttle- valve handle, I was un- decided whether I would move slowly or with a fair degree of speed ; but believing that the road would prove safe, and prefer- ring, if I did go down, to go handsomely, and without any evidence of timidity, I started with considerable velocity, passed the curve over the creek safely, and was soon out of hearing of the vast assemblage. At the end of two or three miles I reversed the valve, and returned without accident ; having thus made the first railroad trip by locomo- tive on the western hemisphere." The first locomotive engine ever built in the United States, was built at the West Point foundry. New York, under the direc- tion of Samuel Hall, for the South Carolina railroad. This engine blew up shortly after it commenced running, and another was built to replace it. In 1831, the De Witt Clinton was built at the same foundry for the Mohawk and Hudson (New York Cen- tral) railroad ; this engine weighed four tons ; it was run without load at the rate of forty miles per hour. Cylinders, five and a half inches in diameter — stroke, sixteen inches; four coupled wheels, four and a half feet in 246 STEAM. diameter. The boiler was cylindrical, with a large dome in the centre, and contained some thirty flues. In January of the same year, the Baltimore and Ohio railroad offered four thousand dollars for the best anthracite coal-burning locomotive, weighing three and one half tons, and capable of drawing fifteen tons, fifteen miles per hour on a level, with a steam pressure of not more than a hundred pounds to the square inch. The conditions were filled by an engine built by Phineas Davis, of York, Pa., in June, 1831. This engine had an upright boiler and cylinder. William T. James, of New York, who had already constructed a steam carriage in 1829, finished a locomotive in 1832; this engine was employed on the Harlem railroad, with success, for a time, but was eventually sold to the Baltimore and Ohio road, where it ^ exploded in 1834. This engine was pro- vided with a " spark arrester." In January, 1833, M. W. Baldwin, of Philadelphia, long one of our best locomotive builders, built the Old Ironsides, for the Philadelphia and Germantown Railroad Company. This engine weighed five tons, and was said to have been run at the rate of sixty- two miles per hour. Mr. Baldwin intro- duced the outside connection engine, thus doing away with the crank axle, and plac- ing the cylinder more under the eye of the engineer. It would be tedious to follow the con- struction and alterations in the various loco- motives that were built by different manu- facturers in the United States. We will, however, mention the most important im- provements. The truck frame, in front of the engine, was first used by Adam Hall, of the W^st Point foundry, in 1832, on an engine called the Experiment. The four eccentrics were firstused by William T. James, on his steam carriage; they were, however, patented by S. H. Long, of Philadelphia, in 1830, and first used on a locomotive in 1833 ; this was the Black Hawk, built by Long and Norris, of Philadelphia, the founders of the present locomotive shop known as Norris' works. The Norris engines were the first ever ex- ported; this was brought about by the, at that time, extraordinary fact of drawing 19,200 pounds up an incline of three hun- dred and sixty-nine feet to the mile, the en- gine weighing but 14,370 pounds ; on hear- ing of which, the Birmingham and Glouces- ter Railway Company ordered several engines for an incline upon their road, where they performed successfully. Since that time, engines have been exported to England, France, Russia, Germany, Egypt, and Chili. In the latter country all the locomotives are American. The engines forwarded to Egypt, were built by William Mason, of Taunton ; and for excellence of workmanship, style, and finish, will compare favorably with any in the world. There are now nearly fifty American locomotives on German roads. Messrs. Winans, of Baltimore, furnished the majority of the locomotives sent to Russia. There are twenty-five manufactories of loco- motives in the United States, aside from the repair and manufacturing shops of the great railroad companies. Hinckley and Drury's, afterwards called the Bos- ton Locomotive Works, was established in 1840. The Lowell shop began to build engines in 1835. Rogers, Ketchum & Gros- venor, of Paterson, New Jersey, commenced building in 1837. This shop is still in full operation, under the name of the Rogers Locomotive Works. This shop made sev- eral material alterations upon the English type ; they enlarged the boiler in proportion to the cylinder, established the link motion, and covered more effectually the cylinders and valve chests, to prevent radiation. Rog- ers, also, was among the first to adopt the full-stroke pump. The locomotives built at this shop have always found a ready market. Next in order was the Taunton Lo- comotive Company, established in 1847, by W. W. Fairbanks, a marine boiler maker ftora Providence, Rhode Island. Then John Sou- ther, formerly of Hinckley's shop, started his works in South Boston, in 1848. In 1849, the Amoskeag Manufacturing Com- pany entered the lists with some important improvements ; they were followed by the Portland, Lawrence, and Wilmarth shops, and a few years after, by Mason, of Taunton, the East Bridgewater, and the Manchester locomotive works. After 1857, the New England locomotive shops turned their at- tention largely to other work. One large company failed ; others manufactured steam fire-engines, stationary engines, and cotton and woolen machinery; a number became manufactories of cannon and fire-arms dur- ing the war, and much of the business fell into the hands of the Paterson and Phila- delphia shops. The causes of this change are various: prominent among them may be mentioned the manufacture of locomo- LOCOMOTIVES. 249 tives by the larger railroad companies them- selves, at their repair shops. The manufacture of the locomotive engine had a good effect upon our machine shops, independent of the vi^ork it furnished ; as in order to construct them a variety of improved tools were made, that have greatly added to the facility for turning out other machinery. These improvements are so marked that no one who is familiar with the machine shop can help noticing them. Coal is now rapidly superseding wood as fuel for the locomotive. It is true that some of our first engines were coal-burners, but wood has been for years the principal fuel used. The American engine has several marked distinctions from the English ; what most strikes the eye of the common observer is the cabj or house for the protection of the engineer ; this is peculiar to our locomo- tive. The smoke stack is also very ditferent in the wood-burning engine from that in use on coal-burners. The auxiliary pump is used on some of our engines, but not to so great an extent as it should be. A first-class locomotive engine costs from 10 to 15 thousand dollars, and an average, taken from our largest roads, shows a cost of about sixteen hundred dollars per year for repairs. Locomotives in this country are built much too large for the work they have to accomplish, and the attention of our master machinists having lately been much attracted to this subject, it is to be hoped that some improvements in the weight will be made. A locomotive too heavy for the work it has to do, is not only more expen- sive in first cost, but in the greater wear of the road. A good locomotive can draw thirty times its own weight on a level, and a paying load should not exceed twenty-five tons; bearing this in mind, why build twenty-six ton engines? There are many parts of an engine now built much too heavy ; the bell, dome-casings, and cabs, for instance. It is not necessary to greatly lessen the weight of the running gear, although in some instan- ces this is much too heavy. Wrought iron in place of cast in some cases would be lighter and much better, and steel should be substituted for iron wherever possible. The speed over the American roads is not so great as in England, from the fact that the former have more and steeper grades, and have, besides, shorter curves, to say nothing about their construction being much less ej^pensive. Sixty miles per hour has been made upon our roads, however, but thirty is nearer an average, while in England seventy miles has frequently been attained. Dr. Lardner, in his lately published "Econ- omy of Railroads," thus endeavors to convey to the unpractised reader the enormous speed of a locomotive going at the rate of seventy miles an hour : " Seventy miles an hour is, in round numbers, one hundred and five feet per second, that is a motion in virtue ofj which a passenger is carried over thirty-five yards between the beats of a common clock. Two objects near him, a yard asunder, pass by his eye in the thirty-fifth part of a sec- ond ; and if thirty-five stakes were erected by the side of the road, one yard asunder, the whole would pass his eye between two beats of a clock ; if they had any strong color, such as red, they would appear a con- tinuous flash of red. At such a speed, therefore, the objects on the side of the road are not distinguishable. When two trains, having this speed, pass each other, the rela- tive velocity will be double this, or seventy yards per second ; and if one of the trains were seventy yards long, it would flash by in a single second. To accomplish this, suppo- sing the driving wheels seven feet in diame- ter, the piston must change its direction in the cylinder ten times in a second. But there are two cylinders, and the mechanism is so regulated that the discharges of steam are alternate. There are, therefore, twenty discharges of steam per second, at equal in- tervals ; and thus these twenty puffs divide a second into twenty equal parts, each pufF having the twentieth of a second between it and that which precedes and follows it. The ear, like the eye, is limited in the rapid- ity of its sensations, and sensitive as that organ is, it is not capable of distinguishing monotonous sounds which succeed each other at intervals of the twentieth part of a second. According to the experiments of Dr. Ilutton, the flight of a cannon ball was six thousand seven hundred feet in one quarter of a minute, equal to five miles per minute, or three hundred miles per hour. It follows, therefore, that a railway train, going at the rate of seventy-five miles per hour, has the velocity of one-fourth that of a cannon ball ; and the momentum of such a mass, moving at such a speed, is equiva- lent to the aggregate force of a number of cannon balls equal to one-fourth of its own weight." Some years ago a curious calculation, 250 STEAM. showing one of the advantages of the steam locomotive, was made in England. " In 1853, 111,000,000 passengers were conveyed, each passenger travelling an average of twelve miles. Twelve miles of railroad are accom- plished in half an hour, whereas the old stage coach required an hour and a half to get through the distance. The aggregate time thus saved for the above number of passengers is equal to thirty-eight thousand years." This was seventeen years ago, since which time the number of passengers car- ried has been nearly tripled. Mr. Fleming, on the Mobile §^: &^. ii °f --2 o c -Si = •»- 5. S « ■2 &•>.?, J J= T3 ^ !> & 3 i "s la. "til « I "^^ " !!! " ra 3 •« « "S ^ a- 2i « ^-2 - « ■S 2 ^ IS ^ « c " 5 S ■£ c 2 91 il C ?i g 6C ** a So ^ ^1 § ?" s;^ > o a a •= — X a a, •s r §5 •S I J5 ° f « S S g <" 5 S „ g-S ^fe :| > a S- § = a , „ 4) 4) c; ;» 2 f STATIONARY ENGINES. 253 engine, which is, in turn, a perfect copy of an old pump taken from Serviere's collection. It may be thus described : two cog-wheels fitted accurately to each other are inclosed in a case ; each cog is grooved and fitted with packing, bringing it into steam-tight contact with the circumference and sides of the case. The axles of the cog-wheels are continued through the sides of the case, and geared together at each end to prevent friction upon the centre cogs ; now, if re- volved, each cog will act as a piston, but as the cogs in contact in the centre lap each other, the piston surface at each extreme of the case will be just double that of the centre, and this surplus of force gives mo- tion to the two axles. The pump of which this engine is a copy was invented as long ago as the sixteenth century. A patent was obtained in England in 1825 by Mr. J. Eve, an American. Within a cylindrical case a hollow drum was so con- structed as to fit closely to the case ; floats, or pistons, were cast upon its periphery, and packed to fit the cylinder ; on one side of the main cylinder was a small recess filled with a small drum, that revolved in contact with the main drum, this small drum having a segment removed to receive each piston as it passed, and having its diameter so pro- portioned to the main drum as to revolve once between the passage of each piston or float. Other rotary engines, on a plan anal- ogous to the above, diff'ering only in the manner of opening the valve, have been in- vented, and copied from the ancients, some of which are exceedingly complicated, but they have always been unsuccessful in prac- tice, principally from the fact that it is ex- ceedingly difficult to pack them. If they could overcome this fault without adding friction, the rotary engine would be very valuable on account of the small space it occupies. The demand for stationary engines, from one horse power upward, during the last twenty-five years, has been so great that now almost any machine shop is prepared to build them, and of course, while such is the case, thousands of engines are annually built that would better bear the name of steam eaters than steam engines. In some of the small engines that flood the market, the first principles of steam are practically ignored, and there are at this moment running in the United States engines that consume more coal to do the work of ten horses than a properly-constructed one would use to do the work of twenty. As an instance of the truth of this statement, we will take the engines built by Messrs. Corliss & Nighten- gale, of Providence, over an engine that was working to good advantage in the James Mills, Newburyport, but was re- moved on the representation of the build- ers of the new machine, that they would take five times the saving of the first year's fuel as sole payment of their engine. The James Steam Mills contained 17,024 spin- dles, and, including the weaving and all the preparations for making sheeting and shirtings, required a hundred and ninety horse power ; their engines were condensers; cylinders, twenty-four inches by four feet length of stroke. Ten thousand four hun- dred and eighty-three pounds of coal per day was the average amount used during five years previous to the contract for the new engines ; this included the coal used for dressing, heating, and all other purposes for which steam is used in such an establish- ment. The new engines were high-pressure cylinders, eighteen inches by four feet stroke. By the terms of contract under which the change of engines was made, it was at the option of the company to pay for the new arrangement the sum of ten thousand five hundred dollars cash in lieu of the saving of coal ; but the choice was to be made be- fore the new engines were put in operation. In view of the favorable results obtained by the former engines, they decided to pay in the saving of fuel. The new engines were run one year from December 3d, 1855, and the average amount of coal used per day was found to be five thousand six hundred and ninety pounds. The coal being reck- oned at six dollars per ton, Messrs. Corliss & Nightengale received nineteen thousand seven hundred and thirty-four dollars and twenty-two cents. Thus it will be seen that the builders received nearly double price for their engine, and yet it cost the owners of the mill nothing for a machine that was destined to be a source of great saving in their future expenses. The singular character of Mr. Corliss' bar- gains attracted much attention to his en- gines, as they showed conclusively the ad- vantages thereof over the old plans. The above experiment was a comparison between his engine and what had been considered a good machine ; in the following, however, we see its great advantages over a more or- 254 STEAM. dinary engine. In March, 1852, Mr. Corliss contracted with Crocker Brothers & Co., of Taunton, Massachusetts, to furnish them with an engine that would do the same work they were then doing with five tons of coal per day, and yet only consume two ; agree- ing to forfeit one dollar per pound, for every pound per day used above that amount. This contract was successfully filled without taking out the old boilers. Mr. Corliss' engines possessed, as may be readilv supposed, several important improve- ments', one of which was the manner by which its speed was regulated. Watt regulated by connecting the governor with the throttle-valve ; Corliss used no throttle- valve, but connected the governor direct to the cut-ofF. This connection of the gover- nor was not of itself the improvement of Mr. Corliss, as that had already been done by others ; but it was the manner by which this connection was made, which was at once simple and efficacious, for which he deserves credit. The use of the throttle-valve was always attended with a wire-drawing of the steam. This wire-drawing is a reduction of the expansive force of the steam, and is al- ways attended with more or less condensa- tion; so that every form of cut-off*, used with a throttle, is more or less imperfect. By thus dispensing with the throttle-valve altogether, and opening the steam-valve sud- denly, the pressure of steam in the cylinder approximates very closely to the boiler pres- sure. The valves in the Corliss engine are circular; and by his automatic method of varying the point of cut-off", he gains a great advantage, as he cuts off" suddenly without danger of slamming, as in the use of the puppet-valve. The Corliss engines are manufacturea with extreme care; and Mr. Corliss, in 1869, re- ceived the great Rumford medal for the greatest improvement in the construction of steam-engines; a medal which has been awarded but twice in more than sixty years. When we add the fact that one-half of the stationary engines in the United States are run by boys or men not capable of manag- ing a modem cooking-stove, the reader can realize to some extent the economy of cheap (?) engines and cheap (?) engineers. Steam is a good slave but a bad master ; and the fearful loss of life in the United States during the past forty years, from the explo- sion of steam boilers, is mainly due to bad management. Boilers are in constant use all over the country, carrying a pressure double — nay, triple — that for which they were intended; the safety (?) valve weight- ed down by old pieces of iron, stones, etc., to such an extent that the runner no more knows what pressure he is using, than does the stranger who is passing his door. In thousands of cases the steam-gauge, which, at least, gives the pressure when in order, is not used, or never tested ; and what was intended as a preventive, becomes, by a stop- page in the connecting pipe or a derange- ment of its machinery, a source of treach- erous security. Many a man, on being asked why he does not use a steam-gauge, will re- ply that they are not reliable, or that the safety-valve is good enough; and yet that same man is perhaps employing an engineer that could not calculate, to save his life, the amount of pressure he was carrying, or, the size of his safety-valve being given, tell its area in square inches. " We can point out places where the engines, beautifully de- signed and executed in their details, are nothing but a mass of slime and grease from bed-plate to cylinder-head, the deposit of no one knows how many weeks of inatten- tion and neglect, while a stolid runner sits calmly by, as though rather admirmg the state of things than otherwise. When such is the case where every thing is visible, where is the necessity of looking among the usual- ly unsearched portions of the machine for safety and economy." One of these steam boilers blew up in Brooklyn, in 1859, and Mr. J. C. Merriam, a scientific practical engineer, was sent for to examine it. He found that in this case, as in many others, the engineer did not understand his business, as was sujQBciently • evident from the following reasons : his pump was small, but sufficiently large if in good order — which it certainly was not ; he took out the piston with ease, and put it back again readily, although it was entirely cov- ered with the coarse gravel and sand thrown about by the explosion. The safety-valve was held in its place by a rod passing through a plate ; this rod, originally a good fit, was so firmly rusted in its place, that all the force he could exert on the end of the lever was not sufficient to move it. He unscrewed this plate, and it required two or three smart blows of the hammer to drive the rod out. In his opinion, it would have taken not lees than twelve hundred pounds in the boiler to have started that valve, allowing that it had the weight upon it that he saw. The owner STATIONARY ENGINES. 255 i mentioned Reed's oscillator, and the Wood & Mann steam-engine Co.'s. A portable en- gine manufactured at the Washington Iron Works, contains all the safety and economic appliances of the best stationary engines ; a description of this will answer for this class of machines. The boiler is tubu- lar, commonly called a locomotive boiler, and is mounted upon two large wheels at the fire-box end, and two small wheels at the smoke-box end, so fitted as to turn beneath the barrel. The steam dome is over the fire- box, and is fitted with safety-valve and steam gauge. The cylinder is fastened to a hollow frame that serves as a feed-water heater, and is placed very near the steam dome, thereby preventing radiation in the steam pipe. Upon the top of the steam chest is placed the governor. On the front of the boiler we find the smoke pipe, and, directly behind it, the main shaft and a pair of balance wheels. The next matter of interest is the arrangement of the main slide-valve of the engine, which is well known to cause much loss of power, in the ordinary construction, by the friction caused by the pressure of steam on its back. This is entirely relieved by a very simple method in this engine. The valve, which is an ordinary one, has a solid protection at each end, which rests on a roller. These rollers are made at first slightly too small, but the grinding away of the valve on its seat soon causes the projec- tions to rest on the rollers, when all the slid- ing friction at once ceases, and the valve works free from friction except that caused by the stuffing-box around its rod. It is ev- ident that this arrangement will not readily get out of order, for when the rollers wear, it brings the valve on the seat, which at once begins to wear, and the pressure once more is brought on the rollers ; hence, it is self- adjusting. The rollers being removed, re- duces it to the usual slide-valve. The force pump has been a fruitful source of trouble to all those who have ever had charge of a small steam engine having a quick motion; indeed, it frequently gives trouble in larger engines, from the accumu- lation of air in the chamber, which prevents its suction. It is usual to have attached to the lower part of the pump, or valve cham- ber, a small air-cock, and, when the pump is to start, the attendant places his finger on its extremity as soon as the plunger reaches the bottom of the pump, thus expeUing the air ; then, on the rise of the plunger, a vacuum is stated that the valve always leaked more or less ; but on looking at it he was convinced that if it rested upon its seat, it never could have leaked, as it was a ground joint and a good one. He consequently came to the conclusion that the valve was not held in its place by the weight on the lever, but simply by the rust on the valve-rod or stem, the weight at the end having nothing to do with it. The safety-valve was bolted on to the steam dome with four 5-8 bolts, and was evidently blown off" at the same instant as the flue collapsed, as it was found in the shop near the engine, while the boiler was thrown at least seventy-five feet against a house. We might name scores of other accidents resulting from similar causes, of which the above is a fair sample; but it is evident enough, from what we have already said, that there is a want in the community yet un- filled— one that should receive the careful attention of every public man. What we need is a law compelling the owners of steam boilers to have them inspected at least once a year, and properly provided with safety- valves and other trustworthy appliances ; it also should be imperatively their duty to employ engineers, and not mere runners. A law framed upon the United States steam- boat inspection plan would be of incalcula- ble benefit to the owners themselves, as well as the community at large. The gradual introduction of the station- ary engine has been of infinite value to our country as it is, but if rendered safe as it might be, its value would be increased four- fold. It is now no longer necessary that the manufacturer should locate beside a waterfall, and transport his manufactured goods for miles to a market ; he can estab- lish himself beside the railroad, the steam- boat, nay, in the city itself, where his cus- tomers dwell. Thus, the stationary engine tends to centralize manufactures, while the locomotive and steamboat lengthen the arms of trade. The portable engine has lately come into general use, and, like the stationary, is made of various forms, in all of which it resembles the latter, with the exception of placing the engine directly upon, or agaiast the boiler. These engines are used wherever it is neces- sary to do work sufficiently great to pay for them, but not for permanent business, such as pile driving, excavating, etc. Among the simplest of this class of engines, may be 256 STEAM. formed, and the pump fills with water ; the cock is then closed, and the pump left to it- self. As soon, however, as air collects from any defect of packing, or otherwise, the pump ceases to work, and has to be again started as before. This difficulty is entirely got rid of by the simple contrivance of an air-trap, whose valve, opening outward at each downward stroke of the pump, allows the air to escape, accompanied with a little water, and closes by the atmospheric pres- sure as the plunger rises. Within the last five years, the labor of loading and unloading vessels at our wharves has been performed by hoisting engines. These are all run at high pressure, and do the work with economy and dispatch. One of the best of these machines is made at the shop of Hittinger & Cook. Several of the ocean steamers carry them to use at the other end of the route. The hoisting so much resembles the portable engine, as not to require especial explanation. In most of the steam sawmills in the United States, the fuel consists of the saw- dust made at the mills, and thus the cost of running is greatly reduced; in other en- gines, coal is almost exclusively used. In fact, the enormous amount of wood con- sumed by steam engines throughout the United States, has so called the attention of mechanics to coal-burning engines, that it is not probable we shall use wood as fuel many years longer. One of the greatest fields for economy in the use of steam, now open, is the waste of combustible gases by the chimney, commonly spoken of under the term smoke, but often consisting of the best part of the fuel, unconsumed from the lack of oxygen, and, in some cases, lack of caloric. Tubes, to conduct atmospheric air to the sur- fiace of the fire, have been in use some time, also the perforation of the fire door; but the tubes being exposed to an intense heat, soon become of no value, and the openings at the door and sides of the fire-box only partially supply the oxygen. A Mr. Pierce, of Troy, has patented a plan for surrounding the air tubes with water, thus protecting a passage direct to the middle of the fire ; we nave not seen this plan tried, but think it would be a source of economy. Stationary engines being the most plenty, it is upon them that are tried nearly all the new experunents. At the present time, the use of super-heated steam is attracting a great deal of attention. In order to under- stand this subject, it is necessary that we should look closely into the nature of steam itself. It would defeat the purpose of this article if we were to go into a lengthy argu- ment upon the relative merits of the various theories that have been advanced by scien- tific men upon steam, and, consequently, we shall merely give our own opinions upon the subject — opinions at which we have aiTived by careful study and experience, it being understood that the laws of steam are at best comparatively unknown. The analyza- tion of simple steam is yet to be made ; we will, however, call it water converted into an aeriform state by the electrization of its particles by caloric. Simple steam does not, however, in the present construction of boil- ers, come into use as a motor, from the follow- ing reason : steam has the same affinity for liquids that all fluids have, forming an elec- tro-magnetic combination to which there is no barrier ; it will then absorb and hold in suspension particles of water whenever in direct contact therewith, and, consequently, all steam formed in the boiler will hold in suspension a portion of water, and become, in lieu of simple, surcharged steam. Thus, steam at 20 lbs. to the square inch holds in suspension nearly double its weight of water. What is the eflfect of this ? First, the water thus carried oflf in suspension is at the maximum temperature, or equal to that of the steam containing it, and the in- vested heat of this water is not only wasted to a great extent, but these water particles become a very serious tax upon the real steam with which they are admixed, as fol- lows : having been heated under the maxi- mum pressure of the steam with which they are incorporated, they have a corresponding temperature, and as the latter, the steam, expands in the steam pipes, on its way to the cylinder, and in the cylinder itself, the pressure becoming correspondingly less, these particles flash partially into steam, but not containing the total amount of heat neces- sary to their constitution as elastic vapor, they absorb into the "latent" form a quota of heat from the surrounding particles of true steam, thus condensing them ; for steam, be it remembered, can part with no portion of its legitimate heat without condensation (unless it be super-heat, of which presently), it being understood that the absorption of sensible heat (temperature) into the " latent" form, and which is the exact measure of the force exerted by steam under all circum- STATIONARY ENGINES. 267 stances, whether usefully realized or not, is not here meant as a loss of heat. That there is a loss by direct condensation because of the presence and action of these water particles as explained, may seem to some at the first glance a paradox, but there is in the case of steam, and between the particles of all matter, a certain impetus and momentum in the transference of that unknown some- thing, which is their " vis viva,''^ or cause of elasticity. The electrician knows this well ; vide the "lateral discharge" and return stroke. Again, for more common place example, fasten by one extremity a straight spring, bend it, release it, it flies back, not to its original position of rest or neutral point, but far beyond, though finally it will settle there. And so it might be held that the particles of steam would make " reprisal," so to speak, of the heat stolen by the particles of water flashing into steam, as set forth ; and so they do, but meantime the piston is moving on, and this heat, the source of the elastic force of the steam, cannot, it will be evident, be acting efficiently in two or more directions at the same time ; but this is not all, the more watery particles in the steam, the more heat wasted by conduction to, and radiation from, the steam pipes, cylinders, etc. Water is classed as a non-conductor of heat to a high degree, but it is a medium radiator, and it vastly exceeds steam and other aeriform fluids in both these respects. This, to a great extent, accounts for the sud- den falling off of power during " priming," so well known. But there is still another, as it were, negative loss due to this water carried off in the steam, because, by its minute subdivision, it exposes an immense surface to heat, particularly radiated heat, that might be brought to act upon it, and thus quickly transform it into perfect steam, much augmenting the volume of the whole, and being generated at less cost than the first portion which held it in suspension ; and it is through the avoidance of the evils before mentioned as due to these water particles, and the gain produced by their conversion into elastic steam, that so much economy is found in the use of super-heated steam, which is steam that has received an excess of heat (temperature) beyond that normally due to its pressure when in direct contact with the water from whence it em- anated. The system, however, is fallacious, because pure steam, and all other known aeriform fluids, expand only about 1-5 40th 16 part of their volume, at the ordinary atmos- pheric temperature, for each degree of Fah. additional forced upon them. Pure steam thus, say at twenty pounds to the square inch, would require to be elevated to a tem- perature of about eight hundred Fahrenheit to double its volume if under a constant pressure, or to double its pressure if under a constant volume (the quantity of heat being, however, very different in the two cases) ; whereas the mere added temperature in this case would correspond to that of simple steam at a pressure of about seven hundred and fifty pounds to the square inch, not to mention that such, and far less temperatures, would destroy all packings, prevent lubrica- tion, cause " cutting," warp valves, etc. There are other practical defects. Although there is no difficulty in super-heating the steam to any desired extent according to the size of the super-heating vessel and the part of the smoke or fire space in which it may be located, yet it is very difficult, if not im- practicable, to maintain a proper average un- der the influence of fluctuating fires — at one time in full glow, at another freshly trimmed, and an uneven draft, damp or dry, weak or strong ; the engine at one time under full motion, and a rapid flow of steam passing through the super-heater, and at another time the engine stopped, and there being little or no flow of moist steam through it to protect it from being overheated and "burnt out," or rendered brittle and insecure. Hence, if super-heating be attempted at all, it should be to the minimum degree, and not with the expectation of an important access of power that no degree will afford, but only to an extent sufficient to supply radiation from the various parts of the en- gine, etc., during the travel and action of the steam, thus preventing its condensation, which, to a given extent, involves not only that much immediate loss, but the more im- portant coactive evils due to the presence of watery particles. The great and main object, then, is accomplished by the produc- tion and use of simple (dry) steam ; any modicum of water present possessing but the negative advantage of supplying lubrica- tion, and any " super" heat, that of supplying radiation. A few words on the subject of large pump- ing engines, may be of interest to our read- ers. Opinions have been much divided as to the comparative success of the Cornish engines, and other models. An opportunity 258 STEAM. offered in 1859-60 of putting the question to a practical test. The Nassau Water De- partment of Brooklyn, N. Y., required a pumping engine to raise the water from their conduit into their great distributing reser- voir, for the supply of that rapidly growing city. Their board of engineers, thoroughly informed as to what Cornish engines had done elsewhere, stipulated that the engine to be contracted for should be required 1» lift six hundred thousand pounds of water, one foot with one pound of coal ; that it should deliver ten million gallons of water into the reservoir every twenty-four hours, and be capable of doing that amount of work in sixteen hours. Messrs. Woodruff and Beach, (now the Woodruff and Beach Iron Works,) of Hartford, Connecticut, took the contract, and their pumping engine, a double-acting Cornish engine, with some modifications and improvements, stood the test as to duty, (600,000 pounds of water raised one foot by one pound of coal,) and exceeded the test as to capacity, delivering 14,500,000 gallons in twenty-four hours, and when crowded doing nearly as much in sixteen hours. At the time of its erection, it was unquestionably the most powerful pumping engine in the world. The work required of this engine soon proved too severe for it, and in 1862 a second engine of nearly the same pattern, though with some minor improvements, was built by the same manufacturers, and placed along side the first. Though testing up to the re- quirement of the engineers in the matter of duty, neither of these engines, in actual prac- tice, has exceeded 543,488 foot pounds per pound of coal, and the first engine has not, since 1865, exceeded 500,000 foot pounds. For several years the pumping duty of the two engines was comparatively light, as, un- til 1865, a daily consumption of ten million gallons of water was never reached; but from that time the consumption has rapidly increased, and both engines requiring very frequent repairs, and falling off in the amount of their work, a third engine of greater power than either of the others was ordered, and this time of a somewhat different construc- tion. This engine, built by Messrs. Hubbard and Whitaker of the Burdon Iron Works, Brooklyn, is called a beam rotative engine' with a "Thames Ditton" pump attached, placed directly under the steam cylinder, and worked by a continuation of the main piston rod through the bottom of the cylinder. The fly-wheel for regulating the motion of the engine is twenty-six feet in diameter, with rim twelve inches face by eighteen inches deep. The distribution valves are the double poppet or balance valves; and the point of cut-off, or degree of expansion, is determined by the time of tripping or dropping the steam valves, which point is regulated by the engineer. The bore of the pump cylinder is 50-|- inches, and the diam- eter of the plunger 38 inches — the stroke of both steam pistor and pump piston being 9 feet and 11-f- inches. The air chamber for the pump is six feet in diameter, and about 35 feet in extreme height, with a serai- globular top or cover, and has a diaphragm division-plate fitted with check-valves to reg- ulate the return flow. There is no feed pump connected with the engine for supplying the boilers, this being done by an independent steam pump. For supplying this engine with steam there are five " drop return-flue boilers," seven feet in diameter, and twenty- four feet in length, well set in brick mason- ry ; so arranged that any number or all of them can be shut off at pleasure. This engine, undoubtedly the largest and most powerful pumping engine in the world, was set in November, 1869, and tested both for duty and capacity, in December, by Messrs. Worthen and Copeland, eminent and disinterested engineers. Its average results on the " duty " test were 750,000 pounds of water raised one foot with a pound of coal ; its capacity, the pumping at the ordinary- speed 18,500,000 gallons of water into the reservoir in twenty -four hours, with a proved capacity for pumping 21,000,000 gallons in the same time. The consumption of the Ridgewood water is now (1870) a little short of twenty milHon gallons per day, at some seasons of the year, so that this engine is capable, upon an emergency, of doing the entire work. The frictional loss between the cylinder and pump, new as the engine was, did not exceed 7-^ per cent. Remarkable as this performance is, it will undoubtedly be surpassed within the next ten years. CHAPTER V. STEAM PUMPS. The great desideratum in a machine for extinguishing fires, is the rapidity with which STEAM PUMPS. 259 it can be set to work, and next to this the quantity of water it will throw to a given height or distance. The machines that best filled these conditions were doubtless the American hand fire engines; but steam has now turned fireman, and in the contest between his iron arms and human muscle, we can readily determine the result. At first, time was the all-important item; all were ready to acknowledge that after the fire had attained full head way ,the untiring eftbrts of steam were all-powerful, "but as the major- ity of our fires were nipped in the bud by the rapidity with which the hand engines were brought to bear, it was not believed that steam would ever become economical, and rarely efficacious. An engine was con- structed for the insurance companies of New York some twenty years since, but abandoned as too expensive ; it was located in a house containing a boiler, wherein steam was constantly kept up at a low pressure, and so arranged as to discharge its water into the engine on an alarm of fire being given ; beneath the boiler of the engine, sha- vings and light fuel were kept constantly laid, so that by the time the machine reached the fire it would have steam up and be ready for use. This was planned by Ericsson, who adso planned the Braithwaites engine, used in England. The latter had two cylinders of about six inches in diameter, one for steam and the other as a pump ; they were placed horizontally. This engine would de- liver nine thousand gallons of water per hour to the height of ninety feet. The time consumed in getting to work from cold water was eighteen minutes. An engine built for the Prussian government in 1832 had two steam cylinders of twelve inches in diameter, with fourteen inch stroke, and two pumping cylinders of ten inches diameter. With a steam pressure of seventy pounds per square inch, this engine threw an inch and one quarter stream one hundred and twenty feet perpendicular ; and an average duty was called ninety tons per hour. She consumed three bushels of coke per hour. Such were the first, steam fire engines. Experiments were frequently tried in the United States, but the whole subject re- mained in doubt until the year 1852, when the first public trial was made in Cincinnati. A steam generator, or boiler, which had been made for the purpose, was placed in connection with a steam cylinder and the pump of a fire en- gine belonging to the city, the whole mounted on suitable wheels and frame. A committee of the city council witnessed the experiment. From their report it appears that steam was raised from cold water, the engine started, and water discharged from the nozzle to the distance of one hundred and thirty feet, through three hundred and fifty feet of hose, in four minutes and ten seconds from the time that smoke was seen to issue from the chimney. The demonstration was convinc- ing, and did convince. The city council contracted for a steam engine to be built on the same plan, and this engine, when com- pleted, was placed in service under the charge of a company organized and put un- der pay by the city. Thus the first paid fire company, to operate with the untiring energy of steam, was brought into existence — the first of the kind in any age or country. Steam, whose resistless power had been so extensively used in the fabrication, develop- ment, and transportation of property, was at last compelled to aid in its preservation from fire. Its superiority over muscular power, acknowledged for other purposes so numer- ous, was to be asserted against conflagration ; , and a city not a century old, west of the Alleghanies, attracts the applause of intelli- gent men everywhere, and the pride of western men, as the scene of this achieve- ment. After this successful experiment and the organization of the paid department, Miles Greenwood was appointed chief engineer, and it is to his energy and perseverance that we owe the success of the steam fire engine.. These steamers were constructed by Messrs.. A. & B. Latta; the first in service was called the " Uncle Joe Ross." The circulation in^ the boiler is kept up by pumping, and thus steam is generated in a very short space of time; it is not, however, unattended with danger. After the success of Latta's en- gines, several manufacturers went into the business. Reaney & Neafy, of Philadelphia ; Lee & Larned, of New York ; Silsby Man- uf'g Co., of Seneca Falls; the Amoskeag Manufacturing Company ; the Boston Loco- motive Works, and several others. Reaney & Neafy used what is commonly called the locomotive boiler ; their engines gave good: satisfaction, and at a trial in Boston, in 1858,, they received the prize over three competi- tors. Of the Lee & Lamed self-propeller we have already spoken (J. C. Cary and J. G. Storm) ; they, however, build a light hand engine, and have heretofore furnished 260 STEAM. all the steamers for New York city. Their boiler is of the upright annular form, Cary s patent, and their pump is rotary, patented by the same man. The Amoskeag steam fire engine has some peculiar features, among which maybe named the vertical cylinders and pumps, by the use of which they avoid to a certain extent the shaking that is so objectionable in some of the other machines ; also the arrangement of their gauge cocks so as to cover the whole side of the boiler and show at once the height of the water, which is used in this boiler at a very low point in commencing, thereby enabling them to get up steam very rapidly. At a trial in New York in Septem- ber, 1860, they obtained a working pressure from water at 90° Fahrenheit in three and one-half minutes. These machines have thrown a one and three-quarter inch stream two hundred and twenty-five feethigh. They weigh about six thousand pounds, and are intended to be drawn by horses. The Silsby Man'f'g Co. engines are entirely different from any other in their construction and operation ; the engine and pump are both rotary, and. are built after Holly's patent ; we have already spoken of this engine under the head of Stationaries. The weight of these machines is as follows : to be drawn by men — three thousand eight hundred pounds li^ht; four thousand three hundred pounds with fuel, water, suction hose, etc., all ready for service ; this size is warranted to force a one and one-eighth inch stream two hun- dred and fifty feet, or two, one hundred and eighty .feet, with a steam pressure of from forty to sixty pounds. To be drawn by horses — ^five thousand one hundred pounds light ; five thousand eight hundred ready for service; forces a one and one half inch stream two hundred and forty feet, or two one inch streams the fame distance. These machines will g3t to work in from four to six minutes. An engine of this style in Providence, H. I. (where they have seven in service), weighing fi\ e thousand and eight hundred pounds, threw a one and a quarter inch stream two hundred and fifty five feet horizontal. One great advantage of the Hol- ly pump is that it runs steadily, no chocking being required to keep the engine in place while on duty, as is the case with all engines having reciprocating pumps. Other steam fire engines, for the use of factories and large buildings, not intended ;to be transported, have been in existence for a greater length of time ; these machines are also used as auxiliary pumps for supply- ing water to the boilers of larger engines, and are generally called " doctors," or " donkeys." Among the best of these are Worthington's and Woodward's steam pumps. The importance of an auxiliary pump, in all cases, cannot be too much dwelt upon. If the pump be attached to the main engine, it is evident that on the lack of water in the boiler, the main enginQ must be started. This is not always possi- ble. A sudden break down in a mill would necessitate the uncoupling of the shafting before the boiler could be fed. The lack of water at a station when waiting for a train, obliges the engineer to run back and forth upon the road ; and if a boat stops at a wharf, or is enveloped in a fog, the power that works the pump ceases with the engine. But how is it when the engine itself breaks down, or the locomotive is embedded in a snow bank, as is sometimes the case ? Why, the engineer must draw his fires to avoid ruining his boiler. Bearing these facts in mind, the advantages of an extra steam pump are obvious. The Worthington pump is exceedingly simple in its construction ; as the reciprocating motion in the steam and water cylinder is the exact motion required, the cross-head, slides, and balance wheel are dispensed with as useless. In the Woodward, however, the connecting-rod, crank, and wheel are retained to give motion to the valve, which in Worthington's pump is moved by an arm attached to the piston rod. Both of these pumps are favorites, and it is difficult to judge which is best. The importance of these steam pumps as auxiliaries is not, how- ever, their only advantage. On board of our steamboats, such pumps as are provided in case of fire are often rendered of no avail by the necessity that exists of stopping the progress of the boat in order to check the current of air, which otherwise would in- crease the flames. And let a fire engine be kept on board for the single pui-pose of ex- tinguishing fires if they happen — does not our common experience teach us that in so imminent a danger, when all are seeking personal safety, and unwilling to await the issue of a doubtful effort for the general preservation, such a machine will be found a very questionable dependence ? Will they not be difficult of access at the moment, or out of order, from rust or disuse, when most CALOMC ENGINE rEOH ^B ■WAREHOUSE OF 0. V. MAFBS, N, T. MISCELLANEOUS. 263 needed ? And does the confusion, which is always attendant upon such an occasion, al- low of reasonable hope that they will be found and repaired in time to be of use ? These are questions which can, perhaps, be best answered by those who have wit- nessed the scene of a steamboat on fire. But with the " donkey" engine, the case is quite different ; being constantly in use, it is always in order, and in case of fire it can at once be brought to bear upon the flames ; it is also always at hand in case of a leak that overpowers all other available pumps ; and, in fact, its advantages are so great that no boat, locomotive, or stationary engine should ever be run without one. For large pumping operations, also, it is believed that the Worthington pump has many advantages. The power is direct, all the motions are rectilinear, the friction is not great, nor is the wear excessive. A steam and a pump cylin- der attached to one frame, with two pistons, two valves, and two rods, comprise the whole machine. The economy of the donkey engines is obvious where steam is only em- ployed for boiling, or for warming buildings, and where the large and costly engines usu- ally provided in such cases, are used solely for driving a pump to supply the boiler. The steam used to drive it, whether of high or low pressure, is, of course, just adequate to the required work of forcing water into the boiler against the same pressure. The Worthington pumps are made of a great variety of sizes, from the miniature ones used as feeders on the Lee & Larr;ed fire engines, up to the huge pumping engines for water works. The only fault we have ever heard found with them is the trouble of starting; this cannot, however, be very great, inasmuch as a pump, to be efl[icacious as a feeder for a fire engine, must be readily started or it would be almost valueless. The Woodward pump has much more brass used in its construction than any other, and is therefore not so liable to rust. The Holly pump has been constructed as an auxiliary engine, and, in fact, on some of their larger machines a small one is used as a feeder ; it occupies but very little space, and is well spoken of by those who have used it. A pumping engine manufactured by Messrs. Carpenter & Plass, of New York, patented in 1859, and has the advantage over the Worthington of starting at once on open- ing the throttle; it being fully as simple. Other pumps of this class are manufactured all over the country, but none are so well known as the ones we have named. On some of the western steamboats they use small engines of the ordinary construction attached to the common force pump, but in no case are they so compact, easy of repair, or durable as the above-named steam pumps. CHAPTER YI. MISCELLANEOUS. In the former chapters we have set forth the various forms in which the adaptation of steam is most familiar to the community ; in all of which steam was used as a motor only ; and before dismissing this portion of the labor of steam, we will allude briefly to some other machines, destined, perhaps, to effect as great a revolution in other branches of industry, as the locomotive and steam- boat have in transportation, and the sta- tionary in manufactures. Agriculture — that wide extended base, upon which we have built up this great fabric of commerce, manufacture, and trade — has been the last to experience a direct benefit from steam. The farmer is pre-eminently conservative, to which the monotonous routine of his business predisposes him ; but the course of the giant worker, steam, is irresistible, aHd he, too, at last accepts its aid. For some time past the portable engine has been introduced to as- sist the farmer in the laborious duties of his calling, and soon will the iron horse be chained to the plough, swing the gleaming scythe, sow, reap, thresh, and winnow, while the husbandman will guide and direct the iron arms which do his bidding uncom- plainingly. Already has the shriek of our new friend been heard upon the western prairie field, and the smooth-turned furrow attested his strength, but as yet he takes not kindly to his new-found toil, and the brains of a score of inventors are at work to teach him this new duty. " God speed the (steam) plough," say we. But this great problem, the education of steam to its new duty, presents many diffi- culties. There are three kinds of engines — the locomotive, the portable, and the sta- tionary— capable of being employed in steam cultivation ; and there may, consequently, be three kinds of steam cultivators invented, each characterized, in its general features, by the kind of engine employed; though 264 STEAM. under each class there may be many modi- fications of parts, rendering the members of the same class as widely different as those of different classes. These varieties would be determined by the structure, form, or size of the engine itself; by the mode of conveying the power to the tools or imple- ments with which it works; and by the na- ture of the tools or implements it uses. First, then, the locomotive steam plough ; this may be employed to draw a gang of ploughs after it, or by a series of knives, cutters, or some form of cultivator, turn up the ground as it passes. The moving of this great mass, however, consumes much of the power, and the difficulty presented by steep grades is very great. The mere sinking of the wheels may be obviated, as it is in the Fawkes engine, by broad wheels, but even these sometimes slip. In Boydell's engines the machine lays and takes up alternately a suc- cession of rails, upon which to roll. Hacket proposed to lay a temporary rail, but found it very expensive. The use of legs, or pushers, has also been tried in England, but was not successful. The portable engine has been used in several ways. As a cultivator it was mount- ed upon a wagon drawn by horses. As a plough it has been placed by the side of the field, working a gang of ploughs by chains and cables; and after finishing one field, easily transported to another ; this was called in England the Wolston system, but is at best very slow. The portable engine has also been used with anchors, and to warp, or draw itself along by stretched ropes. Each of the above methods of employing steam has its peculiar difficulties and de- fects. In the first one, two horses would be required to draw an engine of the lightest construction over safe ground, and up and down hill; and the advantage of the ma- chine over animal power alone, would be only the difference between its work and what the team would do without it. The inventor, however, calculates that with an engine of two horse power, and of suitable construction, working a revolving axle, carry- ing tires armed with a kind of short spade toward their points, he can do the work of twelve horses, giving the work of ten horses and their attendants for the cost of feed and repairs, pay of attendants, interest of capital, etc. In the Wolston method the mode of transferring the power is indirect, the ap- Iparatus is complex and clumsy, and its suc- cess, thus far, has been but small. In the third plan, or that of the warping engine, the inventor asserts that he requires an en- gine of less than one-half the weight, power, or cost of any locomotive; that he avoids all indirect strain upon his cable, by getting the engine to warp itself from one side of the field to the other, by means of a single rope passing a couple of times round a drum ; that the anchor at either side can be removed and passed forward six or eight feet, by one man, while the engine is trav- elling across the field ; that, when using rotary cultivators, he has but little strain upon his cable ; and, lastly, that when he is drawing ploughs, etc., he has the whole trac- tion power of his cable to prevent his being brought to a stand by his wheels slipping. The stationary engine has been used to some extent, but we do not think it has suflficient merit ever to come into practical use. As a motor for a dredging machine for deepening our rivers and harbors, steam has been in use since the time of Oliver Evans ; and as an excavator it has long ago dis- tanced human opposition. The millions of dollars that are annually expended in exca- vating earth, have attracted the attention of inventors to devise modes of aiding the operation by machinery, and large and costly machines have been made for this pur- pose in certain situations, especially in deep cuts of soft sand, which work well, and per- form the labor of many men. Among many others, Messrs. Goodale & Marsh patented last year a machine that not only acts as an excavator, but transports the earth to the desired place of deposit, it being intended to work in ground free from large stones, or nearly so, and where the hills are not too steep for the ascent and descent of a loco- motive running on broad wheels on the ground. This machine will prove particu- larly useful in the west. Steam has always benefited the farmer by bringing him nearer to a market, and in- asmuch as it reduces the expense thereof, it necessarily adds to his profit. The hand- ling of the large amount of grain that an- nually passes through the large warehouses of our western cities, is of itself no small item, and here, too, steam lends its assistance, being adapted to the large steam elevators of Chicago. It has benefited the black- smith indirectly by blowing his furnaces and driving the trip hammers, and directly MISCELLANEOUS. 265 within tlie past ten years in tte immense steam hammers, where it is so much under control as to give a blow of several tons weight, or crack a walnut in the attendant's fingers without harming him. For this ad- vantage we were at first indebted to Eng- land ; but we are improving upon the model, and steam hammers will soon come into general use, of American manufacture alone. An enormous steam hammer on Naylor's principle was sent, in 1 860, to Australia. The hammer is not only lifted by the pressure of steam from below, but the gravity of the falling hammer is assisted by the pressure of steam from above. The work is finished at one heat, saving both the fuel and time of second heats, also consequent deteriora- tion and waste of iron. The efl"ect of the blow of this hammer will be equal to the momentum acquired by sixteen tons making forty blows per minute. The hammer can be made to work double or single, acting instantaneously ; and by the adjusting valve gearing, the length of stroke and force of blow can be changed instantly. In all gravity hammers the effect of the blow is dependent on the weight of the hammer, multiplied by the height of its fall, and con- sequently, the greater the distance it falls, the greater the force of the blow, and the slower is the speed of working. In the double-action hammer, thrice the force of blow can be given at double the speed. The principal dimensions and weights are : timber foundation, twenty-six feet by twenty-four feet six inches, depth, thirteen feet; cast iron anvil block, base eleven feet six inches by nine feet six inches, thirty tons weight ; base plate to receive standards, nineteen feet six inches by fifteen feet six Inches, fourteen tons weight ; standards, ten feet six inches apart, weight fifteen tons ; height from ground to top of steam cylinder, twenty-one feet six inches ; weight of all, about seventy- five tons. Steam to work this hammer is generated from the furnace in which the work to be operated upon is heated, the boiler forming the chimney, and the heat passing up four flues in the same, thus economizing fuel and avoiding the expense of a brick chimney. The boiler is six feet six inches in diameter, and thirty feet long ; weight, fifteen tons. The weight of the whole apparatus, including boiler and mount- ings, is about one hundred tons. This ap- paratus was constructed in England. Steam has also been applied to cranes with great success. One of Morrison's steam cranes was recently loaded with forty-five cwt., the steam cut off" from the boiler, and the load left to hang from the crane by the power of the steam already in the crane cylinder. After hanging for half an hour, the weight had descended only four inches. Many other applications of steam as a motor might be enumerated if space would allow, but we must now turn to the multifarious duties of steam in the useful arts. One of the most important of its applications is its use as a vehicle for transferring and uniform- ly distributing heat. Its large capacity for caloric gives it great efficiency for this purpose, as it holds and will communicate as much heat as a mass of red-hot iron, and will transmit this heat to a great distance, which iron will not do, for the heat will re- main latent until the steam reaches its desti- nation and becomes condensed. In order to apply steam to the warming of buildings, it is only necessary to use a close boiler, from the top of which a steam pipe can be carried to the top of the building ; the boiler being placed as low as possible. This steam pipe is at the top connected with a series of larger ones, placed with a slight inclination near the floor of each room, connected each with the one above it, at its highest end ; thus giving facility to the descent of the condensed water, which IS so directed as to re-enter the boiler near the bottom. By such an arrangement, properly constructed, the entire caloric pro- duced by the furnace will be distributed over the building. The small, or steam pipe should be made quite strong, and should have at least an area of one square inch for every six gallons of water evaporated per hour in the boiler. It will require occa- sionally an addition of water to supply acci- dental waste, and a ball-cock connected to the feed pipe would be useful ; but by all means have a safety-valve upon the boiler. The extent to which buildings are now heated by steam in this country is very great, and since the introduction of Gold's appara^ IS, Brown's, Baker, Smith & Co.'s, and .ther steam heaters have been addec' with great advantage to private dwell- ings. They are certainly much more healthy than hot air, and, properly arranged and managed, need not be more expensive. The pressure is merely nominal, and therefore not a source of danger ; the only disadvantage, that of leakage, is no greater than in the use of gas pipes. For large factories, steam as a 266 STEAM. heater is invaluable ; and for warming hot- houses, nothing can supply its place. It gives an equal heat, and is devoid of that dryness so injurious to plants. To warm a greenhouse by steam, there is required the boiler of a steam engine, reckoned at one horse power for every thousand feet of glass. It is advisable, when heating a hothouse by steam, to surround the pipes with stones ; these stones absorb the heat, and if from carelessness or inattention the steam goes down, they will continue to radiate heat for some time, thus preventing the sudden cool- ing of the place. It is sometimes necessary to boil liquids in vessels of wood, as in brewing, etc., and to use heat in evaporating thickened liquids, strong solutions, etc., where the direct appli- cation of fire would be destructive ; there, also, we see the utility of steam. The com- mon manner of making glue is an instance of this ; elevate the bottom of the glue-pot and cover the receptacle for boiling water, and you have at once a steam oven. This plan has been extensively used in making salt. Or, introduce a pipe in the form of the worm of a still into the vat containing the solution, and allow the steam to pass through the pipe. The steam pipe can then be of iron, copper, lead, or tin, as the nature of the solution may require ', copper is in all cases the best where it can be used. Another process of a similar nature was in- vented by Mr. Goodlet, of Leith ; it consists of pumping the solution through a spiral pipe passing through the boiler, thus bringing the solution to the steam, instead of the steam to the solution. Steam kilns for dry- ing grain have also been used upon the same principle. Dry houses, for lumber to be used in the pattern room, are added to our ma- chine shops. The process of drying printed cloths and fabrics of various kinds, also the warp after it is sized, is in use in all our principal manufactories, and adds materially to the economy and expedition of their pro- duction. The process of drying cloths illus- trates this. Steam is conducted thro ^h the axis of a cylinder, which is revolv d by suitable machinery; the cloth is then m. ie to pass over it in contact with its periphery ; if necessary, several cylinders are placed in a Ime, and the cloth passes over the first, under the second, and so on. Paper is thus dried : the wet pulp laid out on the web of wire cloth is gradually strained as it approaches the cylinders, around which it winds, until it comes off dry and ready for cutting ; this operation is singularly interesting. Cooking by steam was the invention of Denis Papin, of France, as long ago as 1680 ; the most important of whose experiments were the extraction of gelatine from bones, and the manufacture of essence of meat, soups, etc., suitable for long sea voyages. From a work published by him in 1681, we extract the following: "I took," says he, "beef bones that had never been boiled, but kept dry a long time, and of the hardest part of. the leg ; these being put into a little glass pot with water, I included in the en- gine, together with another little glass pot full with bones and water too, but in this the bones were ribs, and had been boiled already. Having pressed the fire till the drop of water would dry away in three seconds, and had ten pressures, I took off the fire, and the vessels being cooled, I found very good jelly in both my pots ; but that which had been made out of ribs had a kind of a red- dish color, which I believe might proceed from the medullary part; the other jelly was without color, like hartshorn jelly; and-^I may say, that having seasoned it with sugar and juice of lemon, I did eat it with as much pleasure, and found it as storaachi- cal, as if it had been jelly of hartshorn." Mutton bones are better than beef bones; and he infers, first, that one pound of beef bones affords about two pounds of jelly ; sec- ond, that it is the cement (gelatine) that unites the parts of the bones, which is dis- solved in the water to make it a jelly, since after that, the bones remain brittle ; third, that few glutinous parts are sufficient to con- geal much water, "for I found that when the jelly was dried, I had very little glue (glu- ten ?) remaining ; fourth, I used it to glue a broken glass, which did since that time hold very well, and even be washed as well as if it had never been broken ; fifth, it is heavier than water, and sinks to the bottom ; sixth, hartshorn produces five times its weight of jelly. "From all these experiments, I think it very likely that if people would be per- suaded to lay by bones, gristles, tendons, feet, and other parts of animals that are solid enough to be kept without salt, whereof people throw away more than would be nec- essary to supply all the ships that England has at sea, the ships might always be fur- nished with better and cheaper victuals than they use to have. And I may say that such MISCELLANEOUS. 267 victuals would take up less room, too, be- cause they have a great deal more nourish- ment in them in proportion to their weight. lijjThey would also be more wholesome than ^'l^salt meat. Vegetables, such as dried peas, ll^cinay also be cooked by the steam of salt g^^ater without becoming salt." 'i[\' ^^® ^^^^ already mentioned that Denis Ijjpapin invented the safety-valve ; it was in j-^jjthe construction of this digester that he ^j^used it; he thus speaks of it: "To know jjg|he quantity of the inward pressure, you .^.jjnust have a little pipe open at both ends, y^is being soldered to a hole in the cover, ^j^p to be stopped at the top with a little valve, jy^xactly ground to it. This must be kept ^,^own with an iron rod, one end of which .,,,must be put into an iron staple, fastened to the bar, and the other end kept down by a weight, to be hung upon it nearer or further from the valve, according as you would keep it less or more strong, after the man- ner of an ordinary Roman balance or steel- yard." Papin's method of determining the tem- ^iperature is somewhat curious : " To know Ttthe degree of heat, I hang a weight to a thread about three feet long, and I let fall a drop of water into a little cavity made for ,,^that purpose at the top of it, and I tell how ' ^any times the hanging weight will move to and fro before the drop of water is quite evaporated !" As nearly all that we at pres- ent know about cooking, and extracting jellies by steam, is derived from the experi- ments of Denis Papin, we will close this portion of the subject by adding his descrip- tion of one of them : " Having filled my pot with a piece of a breast of mutton, and weighed five ounces of coals, I lighted my fire, and by blowing gave such a heat that a drop of water would evaporate in four sec- onds, the inward pressure being about ten times stronger than the atmosphere. I let the fire go out of itself, and the mutton was very well done, the bones soft, and the juice a strong jelly. So that, having had occasion to boil mutton several times since, I have always observed the same rule, and never have missed to have it in the same condi- tion, which I take to be the best of all. " Beef required seven ounces of coal and the same heat, and the beef was very well boiled, although there were more parts of the bones not quite softened. Lamb, rab- bits, and pigeons, mackerel, pike, and eel, ■ were subjected to the same process ; whence I infer that the bones of young beasts re- quire almost as much fire as those of old ones to be boiled ; that rabbit bones are harder than those of mutton ; that tough old rabbits may be made as good as tender young ones by this means ; that pigeons may be best boiled with a heat that evaporates a drop of water in five seconds ; that mackerel was cooked with gooseberries, in a digester, the fish being good and firm, and the bones so soft as not to be felt in eating, I par- ticularly recommend as an excellent dish cooked in this manner, cod fish and green peas." Another application of steam that has proved very valuable on ship-board, is its condensation after having been evaporated from salt water, to supply the wants of pas- sengers and crews when from accident or an unusually long voyage the regular stores are exhausted. The reader is probably aware that when salt water is evaporated, the steam therefrom is as pure as if taken from fresh, and would be as healthful and palatable as any other were it not from the fact that it does not contain the usual quantity of at- mospheric air which has been expelled by heat. If, however, it is allowed to fall in the form of rain, or is poured from one vessel to another, it very soon absorbs a suflBcient quantity and becomes as good as rain water, which, in fact, it is. The application of steam to soften wood, so as to admit of its being bent into various shapes, is old ; but by compressing the wood while being bent, so as to prevent the loosen- ing of its fibre, great improvement has been made, and in the manufacture of furnituro this has been of great service. There is also a Ship Timber Bending Company in Brook- lyn, L. I., who are doing a large business in that line ; the timber thus bent being quite as good as if of natural growth. Steam bakeries, as they are called, show no new application thereof, as they simply consist of dough-raising and other macnines driven by a stationary engine; we mention them simply to show how extensive are the uses of steam. Steam has been used within a few years past in the preparation of paper pulp or fibre from the cane or brake of North Carolina. The canes, softened by exposure to steam for some hours, were discharged from the steam cylinder with great force (by means of the steam) against a granite wall, and were thoroughly disintegrated and formed a pulpy and fibrous mass. 288 STEAM. CHAPTER VII. CONCLUSION. To understand fully our indebtedness' to the inventors and improvers of tlie steam en- gine, we must compare tlie past with the present. We must remember the North Kiver sloops, the slow ocean packet ships, the lumbering coach ; then the canal boat, the horse boat, the horse railroad ; followed, but not yet entirely superseded, by the steam- boats' of Fitch, Fulton, Stevens, and a hun- dred others — each an improvement on the last — until months are crowded into weeks and weeks into days. If it is true, as some have said, that the duration of human life is less in each succeeding generation, it is in- contestable, on the other hand, that the amount possible to be accomplished by each man in the same amount of time is mcreased many-fold. We have shown what has been done by steam ; but are we now to stop and fold our hands at the request of the few old fogies who have been hurried along against their will, and now wish to sit down and take breath when the great work has but just commenced ? No ! American genius is the engineer of this locomotive, "Progress-;" his hand is on the throttle-lever, which he opens wider each day. Conservatism may act as brakeman, but has no power to stop the train unless the engineer aid him. His bright, clear eye looks out upon the straight track — for the path of progress is only warped by foolish or selfish men — and conservatism may brake up and retard, but not stop the train. It will, it is true, take more steam to draw the load, while old fogies thus act as a drag, and they may rest assured that their action only renders the course of progress more danger- ous, but will never stop it. Lay down this vain opposition, then, and add your voice and your purse to aid the advance of steam; send your horses into the country, or retain them only for pleasure rides of invalids ; pave your streets with iron, and harness steam to your drays and cars. We may not live to see it, but it is our firm belief that the time will come when the foolish excuse that steam will frighten horses in our cities will be no longer urged, for there will be no horses to frighten. You say that we are enthusiastic ; so was John Fitch ; does it then follow that he was wrong ? You try to urge that there is more danger in steam than by the old mode of travelling, but this has long ago been proved false; and if there still are accidents from boiler explosions, it is your fault that they have not long since ceased. Pass a law in each state providing for the inspection of all steam boilers, and the examination of all engineers, and impose a heavy fine on all who hire an engineer who has no certificate. Do not make this a political movement, but see that the board of inspectors is com- posed of experienced engineers, men who can themselves pass an examination, of the most strict nature ; and bear in mind also that steam requires close attention, and that there is not one man in a hundred that can have the care of it, and at the same time have his mind distracted by other duties, without endangering the whole neighborhood. Pow- der mills are always located apart from other buildings, for a careless act would scatter destruction around ; well, some of the boilers in New York at this present moment are worse than powder magazines, and yet they are located in the most densely populated parts of the city, and beneath sidewalks trod hourly by thousands. The engineer (?) saws wood, grooms horses, or works at the bench, while his pump clogs, and the water gets low in the boiler ; or, interested in other work, he forgets to put the pump on, and soon after — longer, perhaps, than he is aware — he lets in the water, and wakes to find him- self in a neighboring yard, or never wakes to seethe effect of his employer's false economy. Under such management, who can wonder at the accidents we read of weekly ; or, rather, what man conversant with the law s of steam does not wonder that there are no more " terrible calamities" to be recorded ? It is comparatively easy to understand the great advantages that have accrued to naviga- tion and land transportation from the use of steam, for its effects are constantly before our eyes ; but improvements from the use of steam in stationary engines are less ap- parent, although full as great. Even in the immense manufactories of Manchester and Lowell, where the water power seems almost unlimited, we find the steam engine at work ; and all the water power of the United States combined would not be suflficient to carry out one branch of manufacture in all its de- tails. If we now compete with foreigners in the manufacture of cotton goods, in spite of the low price of labor abroad, it is not only owing to our great improvements in cotton machinery, but also to the competition of our steam mills. And the steam press ! Tiny CONCLUSION. 269 jets of steam puff forth from the offices of our smallest job printers, and ponderous en- gines work the six, eight, and ten cylinder presses of our large dailies. Ask the pro- prietors of those papers what they could now do without steam? The New York Herald has two engines to do the press- work ; one built by Hoe is a beam engine of twenty-five horse power, the other is an upright engine of fifteen horse power, making in all forty horse. With these two engines they consume about one ton of coal per day, and throw off an average of 75,000 impressions. The office is, however, capable of doing much more than this, its utmost capacity being 48,000 impressions per hour. The engine rooms are very well fitted, and have two of Woodworth's donkey pumps ; the one to supply the boilers with water, and the other, to be used in case of fire, is connected with hose in every room of the building. The first steam mill that was erected in England was mobbed by the populace. They feared this giant competitor ; they were afraid it would take food from their mouths ; and we are sorry to say that this old feeling of the laboring classes is not yet entirely erad- icated; educated Americans, who should know better, can yet be found to condemn machine labor. Last year Broadway was swept by a machine that would in time have been replaced by steam, but New York has taken a retrograde step, and politics have so strong a hold upon her citizens that prog- ress must bide her time. Has the intro- duction of machinery hurt the laboring classes ? That is the question ! Are our laboring men worse off than before the in- troduction of steam ? Look at the facts and the answer is plain. A few coachmen were thrown out of employment to make room for hundreds of employees upon the railroad, to say nothing of the thousands benefited by their construction, and that of the cars, loco- motives, station-houses, etc. A handful of weavers and spinners have been temporarily removed, to be reinstated, with thousands of their fellow men and women, at full as good pay as before. Head has aided hands every- where, and those who have kept up with the age of improvements have been, as they should be, the ones to profit by its advan- tages. But great as have been the improve- ments in our stationary engines, there is still much to do ; we are not, in fact, living up to what we already know. The ordinary average of duty performed by our best sta- tionary condensing engines is one horse power to four pounds of good coal consumed, while in marine engines it requires the con- sumption of four and a half pounds to the horse power ; and yet engines are running that consume but two pounds to the same work. With these facts before their eyes, men continue to purchase the former, instead of looking for an improvement upon the latter ; for even these results c?^n be improved upon, as in our best boilers there is much of the combustible gases wasted, and much of the water evaporated into steam is condensed before it reaches the cylinder ; any percepti- ble heat from the engine while working is, of course, so much loss of fuel. Bearing this in mind, enter an engine or fire room, and you will realize the loss from that source alone. The first difficulty is being fast overcome by admitting atmospheric air above the fire, which unites with the gases as they rise, and furnishes the oxygen necessary for their com- bustion ; it is now necessary to get rid of the heavy, incombustible gases, and this will soon be done. The radiation of heat can be prevented almost entirely by inclosing the boiler, cylinders, steam-pipes, etc., in some non-conducting substance ; this is technically called ^'' jacketing r Other improvements in the steam engine are being made every day, and we believe that the consumption of only one pound of coal to the hors epower will soon be accomplished. In view of all the facts that have been adduced to prove that the steam engine is the best of all motors, can it be pos- sible that there are still those who are sceptical on the subject of its utility ? Alas, yes ! You will find them among those who object to the use of steam in our streets to replace the horse cars ; men who believe that new inventions must necessarily be humbugs, because in a few instances they have failed, and who cannot see that the greater number have added to their wealth, their comfort, and their pleasure. The greater number, say we ? We might have said all ; for if the first invention fail, it paves the way for another and better, and many of the fail- ures of inventors stand as sign-boards to show the false paths. You will find these incredulous men in the same position to-day as were the throng of spectators who stood in Brown's ship-yard when the North Riv- er was fired up for the first time, loudly calling it "Fulton's folly." Its great success 2Y0 STBAM. soon quieted them for the time, but it was for a time only. A succession of surprises from that day to this should, it would be thought, have forever quieted them, but they *' still live," and will only accept progress as a fact after repeated successes make it impos- sible to doubt ; meeting each new plan with the same incredulity. In speaking of the accessories of the steam engine, there is one point we omitted: many boilers are unprovided with steam gauges. In a conversation with a proprietor of a steam engine some time since, we asked him why he did not have a gauge upon his boiler. "Oh !" said he, "that is all nonsense ; my safety-valve is weighted at one hundred, and my boiler would easily carry twice that steam. I have been without one for three years, and don't need it." We asked him if his engine was always competent to do his work, and if the latter was always constant. "Yes," he replied, "the engine will always do the work, but it is just all it will do. As for the work being constant, it is far from that ; some days we do not run but half of our machines, and then the safety-valve tells its own story by ' blowing off.' " " Yes," we replied, " and it tells another story, which is ' loss of fuel.' Had you a steam gauge, the engineer would know how to fire, and in less than three months you would be able to pay for a gauge out of your savings." "Pooh ! nonsense," he replied. Insisting upon the truth of what we said, we prevailed upon him to try it for a month with, and without a gauge, and so well satisfied was he with the result that he now says a gauge is worth two hundred dol- lars per year to him. This may have been an extreme case, for the engineer always knew when he came in the morning what machines were to be run, and he soon had an exact knowledge of the amount of steam required to drive them, and, therefore, regulated his fires by the gauge. Gauges will get out of order, we know, but they must be tested at least every three months by some standard. And repaired if wrong. Who wonders if so delicate an instrument should get out of or- der under one hundred pounds pressure for two or three years ? and yet we can point to a gauge in use in this city that has not been tested for four. It is unnecessary to add, the proprietor " don't believe in gauges;" he probably expected it to last a life-time. With regard to low water detectors, that whistle when the water is dangerously low, they must be used with great caution, for if out of order they would be a source of pos- itive danger by the fancied security of the runner. After all, the only safeguard is a boiler in good order, and a competent engi- neer to take care of it ; be sure on these two points, and nothing is better than steam to do your work. Those owning small engines object to paying the price of such men. Is it not better to pay more per day for abso- lute safety than to risk an explosion that will destroy all your property, and possibly your life and the lives of your workmen ? If your work is not sufficiently profitable to pay a competent man, sell your engine and run your mill by horse power; better have a mule to turn the driving wheel than run the en- gine. But it will afford it ; nay, in nine cases out of ten a good man will save more than his salary amounts to in fuel and repairs alone. And now a word to engineers. You who are upon our steamships and locomotives think that such a law would be of no bene- fit to you ; but you are very much mistaken; once passed, it would give employment to hundreds that are now competing with you for a position that is only sought because it offers better wages than stationaries can under the present system ; under the same pay, men would prefer to run land engines, and be near home. Therefore, it is a duty you owe yourselves to insist, wherever you exercise the rights of suflfrage, that your rep- resentative shall advocate such a law ; make it the sine qua non of your vote. And you, engineers in name only, if you wish to retain your present positions, study your duty ; learn why you do what you now mechanically per- form ; find out what pressure you are carry- ing, for yourselves, and do not trust to the marks on your safety-valves; read works on steam, and satisfy yourselves if they are true by, as far as in your power lies, testing them, for all that is printed is not necessarily true, as you will very soon discover. Above all things, be one to form an engineers' society, and discuss with men of experience the knotty points which will rise in your mind when you once begin the study of this po- tent vapor. We cannot finish this article without re- ferring briefly to another motor, which has for the last four or five years attracted some attention : we allude to the caloric engine. Mr. Ericsson, of whom we have already spo- ken, is the inventor of this machine. The CONCLUSION. 271 power made use of is the expansive force of neated air. For small engines this motor has been used with success, but in all Mr. Erics- son's experiments on a large scale it has failed. As there is no danger of explosion from the lack of water, the caloric engine has been of value on the southern planta- tions, as any one can run it, it being only nec- essary to make a fire, and see that the ma- chine is oiled and kept in repair. We do not believe, however, that it will ever supersede steam as a motor, even for small engines. Since Mr. Ericsson's invention, others have followed with various improvements, and much ingenuity has been displayed upon the subject ; we hear occasionally of some great success of a caloric engine, but it never re- sults in any thing permanent. The details of the caloric are different from those of the steam engine, and the heavy boiler is done away with, but they are not as cheap if the cost of the boiler be excepted, and are much more liable to get out of repair ; still, if prop- erly taken care of they are useful, as we said before, in situations where but little power is required, and water scarce. Mr. Holly, so well known as " Tubal Cain " of the New York Times, says, in speaking of the caloric engine: "We only wish it was a better, rival of steam in every particular, that it might compel the makers and users of boil- ers to employ better materials, better forms, and greater care in the management of the subtle motor — steam. And as its mechanism improves, as we believe it will, to some ex- tent, year after year, it will better serve the public by compelling us to improve the fimaller varieties of the steam engine, which, we believe, can also be made perfectly safe. The hot-air engine requires no constant or professional attendance, and for this reason is a valuable motor in cases where an occa- sional or auxiliary power is required. And for small purposes, the saving of engineer's pay more than balances the increased cost of fuel and repairs." Undoubtedly small steam engines and boilers can be made perfectly safe ; in fact, they should be the safest, and will be so, when the public will not look to the mere first cost alone, but will only buy engines of the best builders, and pay a fair price there- for ; another result that we hope to see brought about by an inspection law. Nor is this by any means a small matter, for the unthinking man would be astonished at the amount of small stationaries that are now running throughout the country. In New York there are engines or boilers in every street ; at our hotels and public buildings, in our printing oflaces, carpenter shops, as well as in all the larger manufactories and machine shops, engines of from two to five hundred horse power are daily running. Machinery of all kinds is driven by steam, from the large lathes and planers of our machine shops to the sewing machines of the clothiers; manufacturing crinoline in one place, and forging huge masses of iron in another, the busy hum of steam-driven machinery resounds on every side. Stand and look at the ten- cylinder press, and think of Franklin work- ing at his old wooden one. Compare the speed of the former with the country press of only a few years back, if you would realize this great improvement. Has this hurt the printers as a class? Figure up the gross amount now paid to compositors, and com- pare it with the amount paid fifty ye^rs ago before you answer. Philadelphia is known as a manufacturing city, and one which is probably destined to be the greatest in this country. To what does she owe her pros- perity ? To the stationary engine, for she has no water power. We have already said, and we repeat, that imperfect though the steam engine may still be, it is by no means certain that water power is cheaper, and there is one disadvantage in the latter that is often overlooked, it is that of monopoly. The rich company who own the water power let it out at their own price, for there is no competition ; but with the steam en- gine it is very different ; if the price asked for power by your neighbor be too great, you can readily purchase an engine of just the power you require. and run it in- dependently. But the greatest advantage of the stationary engine is that it can be used by the manufecturer at the door of the consumer, and the goods produced will be thus under his direct inspection. Steam enters into the manufacture of every thing around us. The paper we write upon was dried by steam, our tin paper-cutter was rolled by steam, the chair we sit upon was turned and bent, the carpet was perhaps wove or at least dyed, and the wood work of the very room we are in, were all done by steam. Steam can warm our dwellings, and prepare our food. It tunnels mountains, and makes pins, cards, spins and weaves, coins our money, braids, twists, sews, washes, irons, and, in fact, enters into every branch of industry. 272 MILLS. MILLS. uoi^'omv^ Thb universal dependence of the human family upon bread as food, has no doubt caused that article to be aptly designated as the " staff of life." It has been made of many substances, but in the American colo- nies, from the earliest times, Indian corn, wheat, and rye have been the leading if not the only materials. The laborers of Europe have only since comparatively recent dates used grain commonly for bread. The peas- ants of the south of France for long ages used only chestnuts and similar fruits for the purpose. In Germany, rye forms the na- tive "black bread" made of the grain ground but unbolted. The Scotch use oat- meal and barley for bread. The English use wheat commonly, as is the case now mostly in America. Here, however, the variety and abundance of animal and other food is so great that wheaten bread enters less into the daily diet of the masses than would otherwise be the case. Whatever the grain used, however, milling is the first necessity, and the number and capacity of the mills must always be proportioned to the numbers of the people. In a country like this, where they multiply so fast, the investments in mill property jnust keep pace with the swelling numbers of the people. We find, therefore, in the returns of the manufacturing industry of the Union for 1 850, published by order of Congress, that of the whole value produced, $1,019,106,616, by far the largest item was the products of flour and grist mills. This amounted to $136,056,736, or rather more than 13 per cent. Next to this, industry, the highest production was of cottons, the most general material for clothing, and that product reached $65,501,687. The largest mill in- terest was in the state of New York, where the product was $33,037,021. The census of 1840 gave the number of flour mills in the Union for that year, and if we compare the population and crop of wheat as report- ed, with the number of flour mills, the re- sults are as follows : — ' Population. 1840.... 17,069,453 1850 23,191,877 1860 31,443,322 Wheat raised. Bush. 84,833,272 100,485,944 170,176,027 No. of Flour Mills. 4,364 11,891 13,868 In order to get the quantity of wheat floured, it is necessary to deduct from this production the quantity reserved for seed, and the quantity exported as grain. From the earliest settlement of the coun- try, flour has been an important article of export, and New York wheat early gained a reputation as well abroad as at home. During the wars of Napoleon, the valley of the Hudson furnished large supplies of flour, and milling was a very profitable business. Water-power was generally used. Mills con- centrated where this was to be had advan- tageously in the neighborhood of good sup- plies of wheat. The mills of Rochester, New York, where the famous Genesee wheat is floured, are a grand example of well-applied water power. The Baltimore and Richmond city mills acquired great reputation, and of late years St. Louis, Chicago and Milwaukee have become famous for the excellent quality of their flour, and their flouring mills are of great extent and perfection. The mills at Louisville are also on a grand scale. One of those mills, as an illustration, erected at a cost of $85,000, has four run of stones of a capacity of 1,500 bushels of wheat daily. The mill is situated at the falls of the Ohio, just where they dash through the Indiana chute. The mill-race, excavated in the solid limestone, involved a large expenditure of time and money. The wheels are con- structed on a new principle, being similar to the submerged propellers used in war steamers, and working an immense upright shaft, the base of which is sunk fifteen feet in the solid rock. This shaft drives the entire machinery of the mill with irresistible power, and the regularity of clock-work. Almost every state abounds in valuable mill sites that furnish the power for flouring the grain of the several districts for local use. Steam plays, however, an important part as a motor for supplying flour for export. The ordinary operation of grinding has been by two millstones of some 4 to 6 inches in dia- meter, average weight 14 cwt. The surfaces are dressed, and the low^er one fixed, the upper one revolving with an immense velo- city, generally 120 revolutions per minute. The wheat being fed in through an aperture, is ground between the revolving and fixed surfaces of the stones. It is obvious that the great weight of the revolving stone, the speed at which it moves, and the friction caused by the interposition of so glutinous a substance as wheat, involves the expendi- ture of vast power to sustain the action. A single pair of stones requires a four-horse FLOURING MILLS. 273- power to keep up the required motion. In this mode of grinding between such extended surfaces, the flour does not escape so readily as desirable, and becomes somewhat dete- riorated by continuous retrituration. There have been many improvements introduced in the form of mills. One of the most suc- cessful seems to have been to give the stones a conical form. In this improvement, the weight of the running stone is reduced from 14 cvi*o. to li cwt., and it is placed beneath the fixed stone ; the size of both is reduced to one-third, and they have the form of a frustum of a cone. It is obvious that a mass of 14 cwt., revolving over a surface, is not susceptible of the 'same dehcacy of adjust- ment as one of 1^ cwt. revolving under the fixed surface, and the miller has a much easier and more effective control over the most important portion of his operations. The conical form facilitates the discharge of the flour, and obviates the clogging and overheating of the flat stones. By a judicious combination of this mill with the dressing- machine, a perfect separation of the flour from the bran is efi^jcted at the moment the grist escapes from the stones. The bran still remains in the mill, and falls by its own gravity to a second pair of stones in all respects like the first pair. Both pairs, being mounted on the same spindle, are impelled by the same gearing. The lower pair com- plete the process, and leave nothing uncon- verted into flour that will add either to the weight or the quality of the loaf. The capital invested in flour mills in the whole country was, in 1860, given at $84,- 68.5,004, and the production, $248,580,365. The quantity of flour exported, in 1860, was somewhat over three millions of barrels. To supply this, and the wants of a popu- lation amounting to fully 32,000,000, the quantity floured was about 35,500,000 bar- rels. The quantity and value of wheat and wheat flour exported from the United States for the eight years ending with 1868, were as follows, reducing the flour to wheat, 292,559,880 bushels of wheat, for which $409,888,514 was received. During this period the price of wheat had averaged $1.43 per bushel, and of wheat flour, $7.97 the barrel. During the same period 92,165,- 992 bushels of corn, (maize,) and 2,034,671 barrels of corn meal had been exported, of a total value of $84,015,657. The total pro- duction of wheat in 1868, was estimated at 224,000,000 bushels, and in 1869, 260,000,- 000 bushels, a little more than half of which was exported. The amount of Indian corn raised in 1868 was 906,000,000 bushels, and in 1869, 860,000,000 bushels. Of this but a trifling amount, not more than 13,000,000 bushels, or its equivalent in corn meal, was exported. The amount of either Indian corn or wheat ground in these years is not easily ascertainable. Probably not less than from 185,000,000 to 200,000,000 bushels of American wheat passed through the flouring mills, either in Europe or in the United States, and perhaps 100,000,000 bushels of Indian corn. Within the decade 1860 to 1870, the number of flouring mills has greatly increas- ed, and the varieties of breadstuff's have been greatly multiplied. The old division was into extra superfine, superfine and fine flour, middlings and shorts for wheat, superfine, fine, and shorts for rye, hominy, samp, and corn meal for Indian corn. There are now not less than seven grades of wheat flour, known as pastry, fancy, family, double extra, extra superfine, superfine, and fine, besides several distinctions of these from the places where they are manufactured, or the wheat cured. There are, also, four or five grades of shorts, middlings, shipstuffs, &c. There are, also, various combinations of acids and alkalies with flour, known as self-raising or prepared flour, as well as wheaten grits, farina, &c. Flour of all grades is now put up in paper bags of 24-^ lbs., 49 lbs., and 98 lbs., and much more is sold in this way in the cities than in barrels. Indian corn is sold as hulled corn, cracked corn, samp, hominy, and meal, both white and yellow, and is largely prepared as maizena or corn starch, and for use as starch. Oatmeal and barley meal, as well as pearl barley, are mostly imported, either from England or Canada, though we raise both grains in large quantities. Buckwheat is now ground and bolted with great care, and the best speci- mens of Piatt's or some of the other manu- facturers' "Buckwheat Flour" would hardly be recognized as Buckwheat by those accus- tomed for years to the coarse black meal. The census of 1870, when its manufacturing statistics are collected, will doubtless show an extraordinary increase, both in the num- ber and amount of production of the flour- ing mills. 17 COTTON MANUFACTURES. CHAPTER I. ORIGIN— HAND WORK— INVENTIONS. The use of cotton as a material for human clothing has been known since remote ages, not only in Asia, but among the ancient in- habitants of America. The kind of cotton used in the United States is a native of Mexico, and it was the principal material for clothing in use with the Mexicans at the time of the discovery of this country. They had neither hemp, wool,nor silk, but they wove the cotton into large webs, as delicate and as fine as those of Holland. These they or- namented with feathers and fur, wrought into the fabric in the form of animals and flowers. Cortes sent a number of these magnificent robes to Charles V. The art was apparently lost in the strife that followed, but the material transplanted to the United States about the time of the organization of the new government, has become a bond which holds modern Europe in dependence on American industry; a dependence which they would gladly shake off if they could, but which only becomes more hopeless in their efforts to do so. The cotton culture has produced a web which holds the lion in its toils, and his efforts to free himself, gigantic as they may be, only make his im- potence more apparent. The growing and manufacturing of cotton by machine took date from the organization of the United States government, and its progress to 1860 was yds. Price, United States Cotton of Total Liver- Yards crop. other sources, supply, pool. cloth, lbs. lbs. lbs. cts. 1800, 9,582,263 45,671,170 54,203,433 48 162 610299 1S59, 2,162,000,000 199,416,616 2,361,444,616 6 7,064,'833^646 The cotton from other sources was that im- ported into Great Britain from other places than the United States. The increase of supply was neanly all from the United States. The usual weight of cloth being three yards to the pound, the quantity of cotton spun would give in cloth the large number of yards seen in the table. This production employs a vast capital in the transportation, manu- facture, and sale of the fabric. More people were, at this time, dependent upon the man- ufacture for support, than there were in the United States at the formation of the government. In the United States, in 1860, 978,043 bales were manufactured, or equal to 1,470,000,000 yards of cloth, or forty yards to every person in the Union. The value of this was about 8140,000,000. This was the grand result of seventy years pro- gress from very small beginnings, and this marvelous growth resulted from the extra- ordinary inventions which did not cease to succeed each other, and of which we shall give a brief sketch. The manufacture of cotton by hand orig- inated in India at a time too remote for record, and it has there existed down to the present time in a rude state as far as ma- chines are concerned, yet of an unapproach- able and almost incredible perfection of hand production. Ancient/ writers speak of the "fairy-like" texture. Tavemier, two hundred years since, describes a calico that you " can hardly feel in your hand, and the thread is scarcely discernible." The Rev. William Ward states that muslins are made so fine that four months are required to make one piece, which is then w^orth 500 rupees (|250). "When this is laid on the grass, and the dew is on it, it cannot be seen." These are marvellous productions, doubtless, but they are possible only as a result of the organization of the people. They possess an exquisite sense of touch, and that gentle- ness and patience which characterize only an effeminate race. Even with them a long training is required in each district to per- fect the cloth peculiar to it. This is a kind of industry that does not minister to the wants of a vigorous people in other climes. From India the manufacture spread to China, in the eleventh century, and found its way to Europe with the Mahometan conquests. ORIGIN HAND WORK INVENTIONS. 275 It was for a long time supposed and as- serted by many philosophers that the Egyp- tians made cloth of cotton, and the mummy wrappers were asserted to be of cotton. It was not, however, until of late years, that the error was proved. The microscope re- veals the fact that the fibres of cotton and flax are quite different. The latter is round and jointed, like a sugar cane, while cotton is flat and twisted. The mummy cloths are all of the first description, and there are no signs of a cotton manufacture in Egypt. It spread through southern Europe slug- gishly, and is first mentioned in England in 1641 ; but it made little progress until a cen- tury later. There were two obstacles to progress — want of the material and want of machines to manufacture effectively. The quantity of cotton imported into Great Britain early in the seventeenth century was about one milliop of pounds. Up to the tiuift of the American revolution- ary war, the cotton manufacture in England in all its branches was in a very primitive state. At that date a series of inventions and discov- eries took place, that rapidly carried the cotton manufacture to a magnitude second to no other industry, and gave it the im- pulse which, as we have seen, has not yet ceased to act. The cleaning, carding, ppin- ning, weaving, dyeing, and printing were all conducted in slow and expensive methods, by which a great number of people were required to produce small results. The only source for the raw material was then theWest Indies. The quantity derived thence was about 40,000 bales, or 4,000,000 pounds, and this was wrought up by hand processes. The object in carding and spinning is to draw out the loose fibres of the cotton into a regu- lar and continuous line, and after reducing it to the requisite tenuity, to twist it into a thread. By the early method, after the cotton was cleaned, it was carded between two flat cards held in the hand. A small quantity of the cotton placed on one was, with the other, combed as straight as possible. The fleecy roll that resulted was called a sliver. This roll, or sliver, was then applied to the single spindle, that was driven by a wheel set in motion by the other hand of the operator ; as it received a twist, it was drawn out into a thick thread like a candle-wick, called a rov- ing, and was wound on a cop. This roving was again drawn out and spun into a thread. Thus, in two operations, a single irregular and im- perfect thread grew slowly in two hands. In this manner all the cotton yam used was made, in cottages and private houses, mostly by females. The weaving was also done by hand looms ; but such was the slow process of spinning, that the weaver's time was largely employed in going round to buy up yarn. They competed with each other in this, and the yarn thus cost more than it should. One fine morning Mr. James Har- greaves determined to emancipate himself from the spinners, by putting into practice an idea that had occurred to him. This was, to spin in his own house, and to make one wheel drive eight spindles, and to draw the rovings by means of a clasp held in the left hand of the operator. That was the first spinning-jenny, patented in 1767. In 1769, Arkwright added the important discovery of rollers, or drawing frames. This was one of the most important inventions. It con- sisted in causing the roving, on its way to the spindle, to pass between a pair of rollers about four inches long and one in diameter. These held the roving so firmly between them that it could pass only at the speed of their own revolution. From these the rov- ing passed between two other rollers, which revolved twice as fast as the first pair. The effect was that between the two sets,. the roving was drawn out to double its former length, and, of course, half its tenuity. The rollers thus supplanted the drawing by hand. By this mode of drawing the cotton, the fibres are straightened and made parallel ; and the improvements that have since beem made in the same direction are to increase the drawings and doublings, or the placing of sev- eral slivers together to be drawn down into one. In 1784, Crompton combined these two inventions into a third, called the mule- spinner. The machine of Arkwright was. called the water-frame, because it was first driven by water power. The defect was,, that it spun thread for warps only. It could' not spin fine threads, because these could! not bear the strain of the bobbins. This the mule remedied. Instead of the spindles be- ing stationary, and the rovings movable, the former were placed upon a movable frame which runs out fifty-six inches, to stretch and twist the thread, and runs in again for it to wind upon the spindles. The thread is thus treated more gently. The effect of this machine is best understood by the fact that a " hank" of thread measures 840 yards, and it was before supposed impossible to spin 80 of these hanks from a pound of cotton. The 276 COTTON MANUFACTURES. new machine spun 350 hanks to the pound, thus forming a thread 167 miles in length ! This mule was improved to carry 130 spin- dles ; and when water power was applied, in 1790, it carried 400 spindles. These mules, at the present day, carry 3,000 spin- dles, and are now self-acting. The process of carding had also in this period undergone great improvements. The first improvement made in the old hand cards was to make one of them a fixture, and of a larger size than the other. The workman could thus work more cotton in the same time. He then proceeded to suspend the movable card by a pulley, with a weight, to balance it. The next advance was to make the movable card a cylinder covered with cards, and turned by a handle, in a concave frame, lined also with cards, which was simply the fixed card curved to adapt it to the cylindrical form of the other. The lower part was let down in order to remove the cotton, by means of a stick with needles in it like a comb. The next improvement was in 1772, to attach an endless revolving cloth, called a feeder, on which the cotton was spread, and by it convey- ed to the cylinder. The next step was to take the carded wool off" the cylinder by means of another cylinder revolving in an opposite direction, and called the dofter. This being entirely covered with cards, gave a continu- ous fleece of cotton, which was in 1773 re- moved from it by means of a steel blade like a saw, working by short strokes. This broad fleece then passed through a funnel, by which it was contracted into a ribbon ; it then proceeded through two rollers, that com- pressed it and let it fall into a deep can. The carding machine by these means approached perfection, but there was necessary to it the marvellous American invention of the card-making machine, which made the cards so perfectly and so cheaply as to make the cylinder carding possible. The concave frame in which the original cylinder re- volved, was soon replaced by smaller cylin- ders covered with cards and revolving in a direction contrary to the main cylinder. Between the action of these, the cotton was more perfectly combed out. The carding and spinning of yarn thus had become developed in a manner to meet the wishes of the weavers, but now genius was directed to the loom, and in 1785 the power loom was invented by the Rev. Dr. Cart- wjright. This was improved upon, until in 1803 a new loom was patented by Mr. Horrocks. These looms but slowly sup- planted hand looms, notwithstanding their great superiority. The great obstacle to the success of the power loom was that it was necessary to stop it frequently to dress the warp as it came from the beam. The dress- ing is a size of flour and -W^ter, now used cold ; the object of it is to make the thread smooth, like cat-gut. The inconvenience of the frequent dressing was remedied in 1802, by the invention of the dressing machine. By this machine the thread is wound from the bobbins upon the weaving-beam, and in its passage it passes through the starch. It is then pressed between rollers, and pass- ing over hot cylinders to dry it, it is brushed in its progress. When wound upon the beam it is ready for weaving. The power loom thenceforth grew rapidly in favor. Before the invention of the dressing machine, one man was required to each loom ; after- ward, a girl of fourteen tended two, and produced with them three and one-half times as much cloth as the best hand weaver. Im- provements were made, until, in 1833, a weaver fifteen years old, aided by a girl of twelve, would weave eighteen pieces of nine-eighths shirting of the same quality of which, in 1803, it required a grown man to make two in a week. While these improvements in machines were made, there were discovered processes of bleaching quite as important. This pro- cess previously required six to eight months to steep in lyes and bleach upon the grass. By chemical discoveries, a bleaching powder, composed of manganese, salt, sulphuric acid, and lime, is eff"ective in bleaching the rough, gray, and dirty fabric that comes from the weaver, in a few hours. Every thing is done by machinery and chemical agents. The printing of calico was introduced into England in the seventeenth century, but made little or no progress until its introduction into Lancashire in 1764, when it was taken up by a farmer, Robert Peel, grandfather of the late prime minister of England, Sir Robert Peel. When he began to print, he had the cloth ironed out by one of his family, and used a parsley leaf for a pattern. The method was to cut the pattern upon blocks of sycamore, like an ordinary wood engraving. On the back of the block was a handle. The color was contained in a vessel, over which was stretched a woollen cloth, in contact with the liquid. To this the surface of the block was ORIGIN HAND WORK INVENTIONS. 277 applied, and it was then laid upon the white cloth ironed out, and struck with a mallet ; the figure was thus impressed. The block was then applied in a fresh place ; so that a piece of calico twenty-eight yards, required 448 applications of the block. To make more delicate figures, copper plates were employed, with the press used for copper- plate printing. The copper-plate method was quite as slow as the block method. In 1785, cylinder printing was invented. A pol- ished copper cylinder, three feet in length and four inches in diameter, is engraved with the figure on its whole surface. It is then placed in the press, and as it revolves, the lower part passes through the coloring matter, which is scraped from the surface as it rises by a steel blade nicely adjusted lengthwise. This blade is called the " doc- tor." The cloth passes between this roller and a large cylinder, and receives the im- pression by a continuous motion. Thus, two or three minutes now sufficed to do what required before 448 applications. Al- most any number of these cylinders may be used at the same time in the same press, and with different colors. Thus a five cyl- inder press will do what would have required 2,240 applications by the block ; in other words, a man and a boy could now do what before would have required 200 men and boys. An American invention here made an important change in the printing. Mr. Jacob Perkins, of Massachusetts, invented the proc- ess of transferring an engraving from a very small steel cylinder to the copper. Before this, the whole of the copper cylinder required to be engraved, at great expense, and when done would print about 1,500 pieces of cloth before it was worn out. By the new mode, a steel cylinder three inches long and one in diameter, is prepared by being softened that it may be easily cut. The pattern to be engraved is so arranged and made to agree with the circumference of the copper cylinder, as to join and appear con- tinuous when repeated. When this is cut upon the steel it is hardened, and then, by great pressure against another soft cylinder, the figure is made on it in relief, or raised upon its surface. This being hardened, transfers by pressure the design upon the whole of the copper cylinder. The engrav- ing is thus multiplied fifty-four times, and may be renewed at short notice when the cylinder is worn. This was a most impor- tant step in advance. When many colors are required in the same pattern, portions of it are engraved upon separate dies, and the number of colors may be multiplied by add- ing cylinders. We have thus sketched the state of affairs down to about the period of the introduc- tion of the manufacture into the United States, which was about the period of the formation of the government. The imports of the raAV material into Great Britain at that time, will show the rapidity with which the trade developed itself. COTTON IMPORTED INTO GREAT BRITAIN. 1775.. .4,765,589 lbs. 1786.. .19,900,000 lbs. 1781.. .5,198,777 " 1789.. .32,576,023 " The cotton was derived as follows in 1786: British West Indies, 5,800,000 lbs.; French and Spanish do., 5,500,000 lbs. ; Dutch do., 1,600,000 lbs.; Portuguese do., 2,000,000 lbs. ; Turkey, 5,000,000 lbs. The United States contributed nothing. They did not then grow cotton. The American invention of the cotton gin was more important than all the inventions we have described, for the reason that without it, and the American supply of cotton made possible by it, all the ingenuity of the English would have failed for want of ma- terial to work on. The sources of supply above mentioned have not increased in ca- pacity. England has derived some cotton from India, but not so much in the raw state as she sends thither in goods, and the United States alone keep her mills in mo- tion. While they have done this they have also developed the manufacture in a mar- vellous manner. We will here enumerate the dates of the above described inventions, in order to show that it w as in the midst of the excitement they produced, that the manufacture was transported to America. Hargreaves' jenny 1 767 Arkwright's rollers 1 769 Crompton's mule 1784 ^ Feeding for carder 1772 Doffer " " 1773 Cartwright's loom 1785 Water power used 1790 Cylinder printing 1785 Dressing machine 1802 It was at the period so prolific in inven- tions, and when the use of cotton had so in- creased in England, that the manufacture was commenced in the United States. The first mill was at Beverly, Mass. It had a capital of £90,000, and was organized in 1787, for the manufacture of corduroys and HAND LOOM. POWER LOOM. ONE GIEL ATTENDS FOUB. SPINNINa BY HAND WITH A SINGLE SPINDLE. A MULE SPINNER, OPERATED BY ONE HAND, CARRYING 3,000 SPINDLES, DOING THE WORK OF 3,000 GIRLS. 280 COTTON MANUFACTURES. bed ticks. The capital was swallowed up in fifteen years. The machines were very rude, inasmuch as the new inventions in England were then unknown here. CHAPTER 11. MANUFACTURE IN AMERICA— SPINNING- PROGRESS. Samuel Slater was an apprentice to Jedidiah Strutt, the partner of Arkwright. He served his time, and when of age de- parted for America, where he arrived in 1V89. In the following year, he entered into partnership with Almey and Brown to start a factory at Pawtucket. Here, then, were put up, in the best manner, the whole series of machines patented and used by Arkwright for spinning cotton. There had been previous attempts at the spinning of cotton by water power, and some rude ma- chines were in existence for spinning the rolls prepared by hand, in private families ; but the machines that had been invented in England for the purpose were entirely un- known here until put up by Slater. Those ma- chines were so perfect that, although put up in lY90,they continued to be used forty years, up to 1830, when they formed part of an establishment of two thousand spindles, which still exists in Pawtucket under the name of the " old mill." Slater's business was prosperous, and he amassed a large for- tune. He died in 1834. His son and heirs still carry on the business. It is to be re- marked that his busine'Ss was confined to the spinning of cotton. The business, of course, spread as soon as it was found to be profitable; but, up to the war of 1812, the New England interests were commercial, and when the war br6ke out there was an im- mense rise in the value of goods, which gave to all existing spinning interests a great advantage. Cotton cloth sold at forty cents per yard ; and Slater held almost a monop- oly of the supply of yarn to make it. Mr. Slater had, in 1807, in connection with his brother John, who brought over important knowledge of the recent improvements in machinery, erected a mill at Slatersville, near Smithfield, R I. Mr. Slater established a Sunday school for his operatives, and this is supposed to have been the first in New Eng- land. It will be observed that Mr. J. Slater got his mill into operation at the same period that the federal government was organized under the new constitution, a most auspicious event. The manufacture did not fail to attract the attention of the new government, and Alex- ander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury, in his famous report of 1791, remarks : — "The manufacture of cotton goods not long since established at Beverly, in Massachu- setts, and at Providence, Rhode Island, seems to have overcome the first obstacles to suc- cess ; producing corduroys, velverets, fustians, jeans, and other similar articles, of a qual- ity which will bear a comparison with the like articles brought from Manchester. The one at Providence has the merit of being the first in introducing into the United States the celebrated cotton mill, which not only furnishes material for the factory itself, but for the supply of private families for household manufacture. " Other manufactories of the same material, as regular businesses, have also been begun in the state of Connecticut, but all upon a smaller scale than those mentioned. Some essays are also making in the printing and staining of cotton goods. There are several small establishments of this kind already on foot." The same report proposes, as an aid to the factories, to remove the duty of three cents per pound on the import of raw cotton, and to extend the duty of seven and a half per cent, to all cotton goods. It also remarks that cotton has not the same pretension as hemp to protection, as it is not a production of the country, and aflPords less assurance of an adequate supply. These few facts afford an idea of the notions then entertained of that cotton which has since overshadowed all other interests. The old mill of Samuel Slater, Esq., the first building erected in America for the manufacture of cotton yarns, is a venerable wood-built structure, two stories in height, bearing numerous evidences of its antiquity, having been erected in 1793. Two spinning frames, the first in the mill, are still there, and are decided curiosities in their way. It is almost incredible to believe that this old building, time-worn and weather-browned, was the first to spread its sheltering roof over the young pupil of Arkwright, and that those dwarf frames, rusty and mildewed with inactivity, are the pioneer machines of that immense branch of our national industry — the manufacture of cotton goods. It may be MANUFACTURE IN AMERICA SPINNING PROGRESS. 281 remarked that down to 1828 the exportation of machines of all kinds, and also wool, was strictly prohibited in England, for fear other nations should benefit by English mechanic- al genius, of which they supposed they had a monopoly ; when, however, they found that the balance of genius was on this side of the pond, they liberally removed the prohibition. Mr. Slater, the father of American cotton manufactures, was so closely watched at the English custom-house, that he could not smuggle over a drawing or pattern. He had, however, acquired a full knowledge of the Arkwright principle of spinning, and from recollection, and with his own hands, made three cards and twenty-two spindles, and put them in motion in the building of a clothier, by the water-tv'heel of an old fulling- mill. Seventy-seven years have since elapsed, and the business has in that period increased beyond all precedent in the history of manu- factures. ' Our rivers and wild waterfalls, that then flowed and murmured In solitude, are now propelling thousands of mill-wheels, and millions of shuttles and spindles. In the business, hundreds of fortunes have been made, thousands of citizens earn a subsist- ence and find constant employment, while millions are clothed in different portions of the globe. A wonderful revolution has that old mill produced on the shores of the new world. When Gen. Jackson visited the mill, and complimented Slater on his having been the first : " Yes," he replied, " here I gave out the psalm, which is now sung by millions." The machines for the spinning of cotton thence spread into several states, and con- tinued to attract capital. The extent to which this was carried became evident in 1810, from the facts collected by the secre- tary of the treasury, Albert Gallatin, Esq. The manufactures of cotton and wool were then principally confined to families; and Mr. Gallatin thought it probable that about two-thirds of the clothing (including hosiery), of the house and table linen worn and uted by the inhabitants of the United States, not residing in cities, was the product of family manufactures. The number of cotton mills returned to the secretary, which were erect- ed at the close of the year 1809, was eighty- seven, sixty-two of which (forty-eight water and fourteen horse-mills) were in operation, and worked at that time 31,000 spindles. The other twenty-five, it was supposed, would be in operation in the course of the year 1810, and, with the former, would probably work eighty thousand spindles at the com^ mencement of the year 1811. He estimated the amount of capital that would be em- ployed in these mills at $4,800,000, the cotton used 3,600,000 lbs., the yarn spun at 2,880,000 lbs., valued at $3,240,000, the men employed 500, and the women and boys 3,500. By the returns of the marshals of the census of 1810, the number of cotton fac- tories was 168, with 90,000 spindles; but from most of the states no returns were made of the quantity of cotton used and the yarn spun. Massachusetts had 54, most of them, no doubt, small, having in the whole only 19,448 spindles, consuming but 838,- 348 pounds of cotton, and their produce valued at $931,916. Rhode Island had 26 factories, with 21,030 spindles, and Connect- icut 14, with 11,883 spindles. These were for the supply of yarn to be used in hand looms exclusively. In this position of affiairs the war took place; but just on its eve Mr. Francis C. Lowell, of Boston, returned from Europe, where he had inspected the great improve- ments in machines for cotton manufacturing, and had formed the project of establishing the manufacture in this country. He as- sociated with himself in the enterprise his brother-in-law, Patrick S. Jackson, and they set about it. The country was then at war with England, and there was no possibility of getting either models or machines thence, nor even drawings. The memory of Mr. Lowell was all that was to be depended upon for the structure of the machinery, the materials used in the construction, even the tools of the machine shop. The first object to be accomplished was to procure a power loom. To obtain one from England was, of course, impracticable ; and although there were many patents for such machines in our Patent Office, not one had yet exhibited suf- ficient merit to be adopted into use. Under these circumstances but one resource re- mained— to invent one themselves — and this these earnest men at once set about. Unacquainted as they were with machinery in practice, they dared, nevertheless, to at^ tempt the solution of a problem that had bafllcd the most ingenious mechanicians. In England, the power loom had been invented by a clergyman, and why not here by a mer- chant? After numerous experiments and failures, they at last succeeded, in the COTTON MANUFACTURES. autumn of 1812, in producing a model whicli they thought so well of as to be willing to make preparations for putting up a mill for the weaving of cotton cloth. It was now necessary to procure the assistance of a practical mechanic, to aid in the construction of the machinery, and the friends had the good fortune to secure the services of Mr. Paul Moody, afterward so well known as the head of the machine shop at Lowell. They found, as might naturally be expected, many defects in their model loom ; but these were gradually remedied. The project hitherto had been exclusively for a weaving mill, to do by power what had before been done by hand looms. But it was ascertain- ed on inquiry that it would be more eco- nomical to spin the twist than to buy it, and they put up a mill for about 1,700 spindles, which was completed late in 1813. It will probably strike the reader with some astonishment to be told that this mill, still in operation at Waltham, was probably the first one in the world that combined all the operations necessary for converting the raw cotton into finished cloth. Such, however, is the fact, as far as we are informed on the subject. The mills in this country — Slater's, for example, in Rhode Island — were spin- ning mills only ; and in England, though the power loom had been introduced, it was used m separate establishments, by persons who bought, as the hand weavers had always done, their twist of the spinners. Great dif- ficulty was at first experienced at Waltham, ^ for the want of a proper preparation (sizing) of the warps. They procured from England a drawing of Horrocks' dressing machine, which, with some essential improvements, they adopted, producing the dresser now in use at Lowell and elsewhere. No method was, however, indicated in this drawing of winding the threads from the bobbins on to the beam; to supply this deficiency, the macnine called the warper was invented, and there was now no further difiiculty in weaving by power looms. The "double speeder," answering to the fly frame for spin- ning roving, was then added. Mr. Moody then invented the machine called the filling throstle, for winding the thread for weft from the bobbin on to the quills for the shuttle. The manufacture, as far as machinery went, was now on a permanent basis. The dif- ficulty that presented itself was in opera- tives. There was here no such pauper class as that from which the English mills were sup- plied, and the factories were to be recruited from respectable families. By the erection of boarding-houses, at the expense and under the control of the factory; putting at the head of them matrons of tried character, and allowing no boarders to be received except the female operatives of the mill ; by strin- gent regulations for the government of these houses — by all these precautions, they gained the confidence of the rural population, who were no longer afraid to trust their daughters in a manufacturing town. A supply was thus obtained, of respectable girls; and these, from pride of character, as well as from prin- ciple, took great care to exclude all others. It was soon found that apprenticeship in a factory entailed no degradation of character, and was no impediment to a respectable con- nection in marriage. A factory girl was no longer condemned to pursue that vocation for life ; she would retire, in her turn, to assume the higher and more appropriate responsibilities of her sex ; and it soon came to be consid- ered that a few years in a mill were an honor- able mode of securing a dower. The busi- ness could thus be conducted without any per- manent manufacturing population. The oper- atives no longer form a separate caste, pursu- ing a sedentary employment, from parent to child, in the heated rooms of a factory, but are recruited in a circulating current from the healthy and virtuous population of the country. The success which these mills met with of course prompted their extension. In 1821, Mr. Ezra Worther, who had formerly been a partner with Mr. Moody, and who had applied to Mr. Jackson for employment, suggested that the Pawtucket canal, at Chelmsford, would aff'ord a fine location for large manufacturing establishments, and that probably a privilege might be purchased of its proprietors. To Mr. Jackson's mind the hint suggested a much more stupendous pro- ject— nothing less than to possess himself of the whole power of the Merrimac river at that place. Aware of the necessity of se- crecy of action, to secure this property at any reasonable price, he undertook it single- handed. It was necessary to purchase not only the stock in the canal, but all the farms on both sides of the river, which controlled the water-power, or which might be neces- sary for the future extension of the business. Such was the beginning of Lowell, since so world-renowned. A new company, the Mer- rimac, was immediately established under the direction of Kirk Boott, Esq. MANUFACTURE IN AMERICA SPINNING PROGRESS. 283 The establishment of the Lowell mills took place at a time when the occurrence of war had diverted the capital of New England from commerce, and it eagerly sought new modes of investment. These were presented in the promising prospects of the newly in- vented machine manufactures. The cotton growth of the south had become large before the war, and that event caused an immense accumulation of stock that sunk the price to the lowest point, and by so doing, offered an abundance of raw material at rates merely nominal compared with what the English manufacturers had been paying. This gave a great advantage to the new enterprise, and Congress aided it by the establishment of protective duties. The minimum cotton duty was invented for the purpose. The rate was nominally ad valorem, but the price was fixed at a minimum, on which the duty was cast — hence the duty was in effect spe- cific. Thus, the abundant raw material, the low price of cotton, and the protection of the government, all combined to give breadth to the newly awakened manufticturing fe- ver. The capital that crowded into it, soon, as a matter of course, overdid the business, and distress followed, which was sought to be relieved by a still higher tariff in 1824. That seemed, however, to add but fuel to the flame; and in 1828, still higher rates were demanded. We may compare these tariffs : cotton goods not dyed were to be valued at twenty-live cents per square yard, and pay twenty-five per cent, duty, or six and a quar- ter cents per yard ; goods printed or dyed were to pay nine cents per square yard ; fus- tians, moleskins, etc., were to pay twenty -five cents per square yard ; woollens were charged twenty-five per cent, in 1816, thirty-three and a half per cent, in 1824, and forty -five per cent, in 1828. Under all these circum- stances, the manufacture could not fail to grow rapidly, and of course to bring on dis- tress as the result. In 1831, the tariff excite- ment had reached such a pitch that the most disastrous political results were anticipated. It was then that the committee of the con- vention collected information of the existing manufactures. They reported the table which we annex. The returns are for the eleven states where manufactures were well devel- oped ; some twenty to thirty other mills were also reported, but so imperfectly that the returns were rejected. The table is very valuable — as follows : — osspcooCT'oo ^ty ■fr^g-S-53 S a-CL^J^ ^^ g » O t» » 2,0 >H,cn a ^2 ^g ^2 «> O a> 2 a '^ '• c 2,° £0 a- so . en fC* *<^ fD ? 11- 00 00 otso O rf^ -^ O 05 tf»- — I 00 tn en O W OD If. 0000 tooo ►- 05 00 ts'>3 _^ ^ to o'p'j® i» pS. :?■ to h-i""© 00 00 c » I oa 00 tn W w O O O M 4^ -^d ^ o p"-< 'CO -.0- II to 00 ^s< op _pOCc_p 000 0 = 0 000 J-'J-^J-^.^ to 0> 03 «0 O O cow p-1 P SSI 5 ft g o -^ _p» p j» rf^ W j» to ^-^ J-" ocoo as c:)© CO o • -00 g^ 2; tOOs>f».050>(^C»i>(^50 OS asc:)OCO<:c^too ►--jtoostB-icjtooao hs-iogsa>oc5c/3-JO;o ^-^OOtn — OSt-'Oi-' tnOOO&fcOOOSr-i-^OO OS J^o J^ b ►-"t^ 05 O Ji. t-" OD "• 3 coto 0D.-4 >-'i^(x>"-'to5a ■Ko'o'to'bs to'^-i c;"-'bO rf^ 4^ coocntoCTatn of^n 0»«i-tn Mi-«D — COOCTOOtO-^OttOOpP P tO'ipO ^^ OSO<— I0-^COO>W«00'»0-40«000< 14^0 .^i^ MJ» toi» vr-rPs ^ !r-Kcoo-ts«oi*coaoc •^-'2: 1-1 M. to toi::- to- CO asp vijji &> a ^ o< -^ h^ • WCOOSO toooo l-» -" J ^*^^ > co"«o ifi. o 4i- o OS 4^ "os "co-<«c-^^o;i-'y'fi^ ^CO^^ Cr03C;CO--l4i.OOOCn0^i-itO«OCr'J;'>-'0 'WCO 0000 500 O O rf».0 too *^ W O O CO O) to o ^tO 00 < o-» co-o"-* !p.O-40 = Oi-'0005*i.W«OI-^lt^ -r* j^ j^ «> S>^^^ Hi. . oco«o to cjS 5 '— • fcoP°Csi'*J^'J*J^i'*P' i»2.M H-i CO Cn-'i^oocoQO 0»PM -^ O wo 4^- 50 OS OsO ■-; » O • H- rf^ o^oc«to~»c;«t-'o-»CO OJ-^ OS 4^ OS to 0:0 r-H t-" O O to tfk 1-1 4i. tn CO* i— o OJ 4^ CO 4i. H^ !-^ g^ j-<5opiOiP'os^-^r'^-' *■■ i»' i»*-j-^i*Jr*j=' i^S. -s OS to CO to ^"o>'Vo Vo"co 'os "to "oi'«o"to o 01"b<-^=o• „. totocooioi-'4».0'— CO ^^ coto«oooojoop 5* OsCOOOtnOtOCWOSO ►- -^ «c>Os0003COC">f>- ^ ^ i*» s 03 OS 2o « W a> to to S w 5 " ^ - fe is? a. *.to- • ic* • o>' • • — OS ®P g. gi wS o o> OOOlOtO S' » 2 to "o © *w I i«.ow jo§^^: : ^ « ^ :::;:: Hs" P 00 p» 00 tooco 1^ — to pjD ^ cw «y3o wpp or CO ci» to o t£> o • O OCRO OOO td*0»9UiOO O 284 COTTON MANUFACTURES. Such had been the immense growth of the manufacture in ten years from the time the Lowell mills were started, when but little ma- chine cloth was made; but in 1831, there was made, it appears, 230,461,990 yards, or nearly twenty yards per head for all the people. It is obvious that this large and sudden pro- duction of cloth could have found vent only by supplanting the work of families and hand looms, and of course by pressing hard upon the spinners of yarn. The New Eng- land mills were mostly carried on as one concern, spinning and manufacturing to- gether. This, however, is not the case with the mills in the middle or the new states. The mills there are mostly employed in spin- ning only, as were the first New England mills. The yarns are produced for sale to hand looms. The census of 1840 gave the number of mills in the whole country at 1,240, and the number of spindles at 2,284,- 631, consuming 132,835,856 lbs. of cotton; and the manufacture had continued to spread into the southern and western states. That was still hand weaving, which yet obtains in many parts of the older states of the Union. Thus, while in Pennsylvania the capital invested amounts to about one-seventh of that of Massachusetts, the quantity of cot- ton consumed is one-fifth ; the value of the raw material, not quite one-fourth ; number of operatives (male and female), one-fourth ; value of products, rather more than one- f©urth ; the number of pounds of yarn spun and sold as yarn is above thirty times greater in Pennsylvania than in Massachusetts. This, to a certain extent, gives a key to the differ- ences in the modes of manufacture in the two states. There can be no doubt, however, that domestic weaving is gradually giving way, and those manufacturers, especially in Pennsylvania, who formerly did a prosperous business as spinners only, now find that the eastern states supply the piece goods at a rate so little above the cost of the yarn, that it is^ not worth the while of the farmer to continue this primitive custom of weaving his own cloth. Thus the domestic loom is fast following the spinning wheel of the early settlers, and those manufacturers who until recently have spun yarn only, are gradually introducing the power loom as the only means of sustaining their position in the market. This was illustrated by the Eagle Cotton Mill, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. For- merly, the proprietors spun yarn only, and did a successful trade ; but, by a return which they made, it appears that in six establishments under their direction they had introduced already 540 looms to the 26,000 spindles, and were manufacturing sheeting at the rate of 6,000,000 yards per annum, together with twilled cotton bags, batting, and yarns, and this in order to make the latter pay, by consuming the surplus yarns themselves. In the Penn Cotton Mill, Pittsburg, the more modern system had be- come the rule of the establishment, and with 7,000 spindles and 207 looms, 2,730,000 yards of shirtings were produced annually, besides 240,000 lbs. weight of colored yarns for cotton warps and cotton rope. At two establishments in Richmond, Virginia, the " consumption of the yarn in the manufacture of piece goods was the rule. Georgia, Ten- nessee, and North Carolina are quoted as those in which the greater progress had been made, while Virginia, South Carolina, and Alabama were the next. In Tennessee, spin- ning would appear to be the rule and manu- facturing the exception ; in Georgia and North Carolina, equal attention is paid to both ; while in Virginia, South Carolina, and Alabama the manufacture of the piece goods is decidedly more extensively carried on than spinning; only slave labor is largely used, with free whites as overseers and instructors. The males are heads of departments, ma- chinists, dressers, etc., and the females are spinners and weavers. The latter are chiefly adults, though children from twelve to fif- teen are employed. The average hours of work here are twelve, but vary a little with the season, very full time being the rule. The James River Mill produces a large weight of work for the extent of its machin- ery. The goods manufactured are coarse cottons, and average about two and one-half yards to the pound, shirtings twenty-eight inches wide (osnaburgs), summer panta- loons for slaves, and bagging for export to the Brazils for sugar bags, running about three yards to the pound. Bagging of a lighter character for grain, and thirty-six inch osnaburgs, two yards to the pound, are also produced. The Manchester Company manu- facture sheetings, shirtings, and yarns, and employ about 325 operatives ; the children being of the same average age as at the James River Mill. Mr. Whitehead, of Virginia, in 1853, perfected a patent speeder. Its ad- vantages are a greater speed, a more even roving, and a bobbin of any desirable size, which never becomes spongy in the wind- MANUFACTURE IN AMERICA — SPINNING — PROGRESS. 285 ing. In Maryland, however, there were twenty-four establishments in 1850, chiefly engaged in the manufacture of piece goods, such as drillings, sheetings, ducks, osna- burgs, and bagging. The yarns produced for domestic purposes bear but a small pro- portion to those manufactured into cloth, and these are chiefly sold within the state for the home weaving of mixed fabrics of wool and cotton, forming coarse linseys. If the illustrations given show the early pro- gress and position of this manufacture in the United States, so far as daily-recurring im- provements and ever-increasing wants have permitted it to remain in its original form, the manufacturing towns of Lowell, Man- chester, and Lawrence, strikingly demonstrate the results of the energy and enterprise of the manufacturers of New England. At Lowell, Mass., the cotton manufacture has been developed in a form which has been a theme for many writers on the economy and social bearing of the factory system ; and the plans so successfully put into operation here and carried on since 1822 have led to the erection of large establishments, with their attendant boarding-houses, at Man- chester, N. H., and more recently at Law- rence, Mass. The falls of the Pawtucket on the Merrimac river and the Pawtucket canal, which had previously been used only for the purpose of navigation and connecting the river above and below the falls by means of locks, presented to the original projectors of Lowell a site for the solution of an important problem, not only in Ameri- can industry, but to a great extent in that of Europe itself. This was the combina- tion of great natural advantages with a large and well-directed capital, resulting in extensive and systematic operations for the realization of a legitimate profit, while the social position of the operative classes was sedulously cared for, and their moral and intellectual elevation promoted and secured. The census of 1860 gave figures that show the extent of the manufacture as it existed at that date, in all the states. Those figures are as follows : — COTTON MANUFACTURES OP THE UNITED STATES PER CENSUS OF 1860. State. Es^ll- Capital. ^-^^fraw ^Male Ferna^ ,^,, ,, ,^,,,, Yalue^f Maine 19 $6,018,325 $3,319,335 1,828 4,936 $1,368,888 $6,235,623 New Hampshire 44 12,586,880 7,128,196 3,829 8,901 2,883,804 13,699,994 Yermont 8 271,200 181,030 157 222 78,468 357,450 Massachusetts 217 33,704,674 17,214,592 13,691 24,760 7,798,476 38,004,255 Rhode Island 153 10,052,200 5,799,223 6,353 7,724 2,847,804 12.151,191 Connecticut 129 6,627,000 4,028,406 4,028 4,974 1,743,480 8,911,387 New York 79 5,383,479 3,061,105 3,107 4,552 1,405,292 6,676,878 Pennsylvania ,. 185 9,203,460 7,386,213 6,412 8,582 2,768,340 13,650,114 New Jersey 44 1,320,550 1,165,435 1,010 1,524 468,336 2,217,728 Delaware 11 582,500 570,102 520 589 218,352 941,703 Maryland 20 2,254,500 1,698,413 1,093 1,594 582,780 2,973,877 District of Columbia.. 1 45,000 47,403 70 25 19,800 74,400 Ohio 8 265,000 374,100 372 468 151,164 723,500 Indiana 2 251,000 229,925 177 190 84,888 344,350 Illinois 3 4,700 11,930 10 1 2,640 18,987 Utah 1 6,000 6,000 4 3 3,420 10,000 Missovri 2 169,000 110,000 85 85 30,600 230,000 Kentucky 6 244,000 214,755 130 116 41,280 315,270 Yirginia 16 1,367,543 811,187 694 747 260,856 1,489,971 North Carolina 39 1,272,750 622,363 449 1,315 189,744 1,046,047 South Carohna 17 801,825 431,525 342 549 123,300 713,050 Georgia 33 2,126,103 1,466,375 1,131 1,682 415,332 2,371,207 Florida 1 30,000 23,600 40 25 7,872 40,000 Alabama 14 1,316,000 617,633 543 769 198,408 1,040,147 Louisiana 2 1,000,000 226,600 220 140 49,440 466,500 Texas , 1 450,000 64,140 130 .. 15,600 80,695 Mississippi 4 230,000 79,800 106 109 36,264 176,328 Arkansas 2 37,000 11,600 14 11 4,428 23,000 Tennessee 30 965,000 384,548 323 576 139,180 698,122 Total 1,091 98,585,269 57,285,534 46,859 75,169 23,940,168 115,681,774 Total in 1850 1,074 76,032,578 37,778,064 35,295 62,661 17,267,112 65,501,687 Increase 17 $22,552,691 $19,507,470 11,364 12,508 $6,672,996 $50,180,087 286 COTTON MANUFACTURES. CHAPTER III. INVENTIONS— MODE OF MANUFACTURE— PRmTING— AGGREGATE. "While the manufacture lias thus spread over the face of the Union, the pioneer mills, or those which are erected in new locali- ties, are generally employed in the spinning of yarn of coarse sorts ; the old mills gradually spinning finer yarn, and attaching weaving and printing to their operations. In the whole period, however, of the past fifty years, continued improvements have been made in machines and in power. Those mills. that came into operation with fresh capital and the newest machines, had always advantages over those which still worked the old machines. The introduction of steam as a motor also favored the introduction of mills into localities that were not provided with water, and many persons contended that steam was cheaper and better even where water power existed. The latter was improved in its turn by the introduction of turbine wheels, which are a steady and suf- ficient power. The streams of New England were by art made to contribute in a wonder- ful manner to the work of factories. The works at Holyoke, Mass., are a singular in- stance of genius and enterprise. In the machines themselves, the greatest improve- ments have been continually made, in this country, as well as abroad. We have men- tioned the American gin of Whitney, which, by enabling cotton to be cleaned, laid the foundation of the whole trade. The card-sticking machine, the steel die of Per- kins, ring spindle of Jenks, the improved throstle of M'Cully, the tube-frame, the patent size of Mallerd, of Lowell, are among the most important of a crowd of inventions that have been made by American mechanics, and every few years a new mill starts in some quarter, with all these combined. The ring spindle of Mr. Jenks is very curious, and is producing important results. That gentle- man was a pupil of Slater, and had an establishment for the manufacture of cotton machinery near Philadelphia, since 1810. On the starting of the Lowell mills, Mr. Moody invented a number of machines, viz : a loom, a filling frame, a double speeder, a governor, and also what is called the " dead spindle," in distinction to the " live spindle," which was the English invention. The dead spindle is mostly used in Lowell. Mr. Jenks' ring spindle is, however, superseding both, inasmuch as that it produces more and better yarn. The spindle of this improved frame has no fly, but has a small steel ring, called a traveller, about a quarter of an inch in diameter, with a slit for the insertion of the thread, which is wound by the ring travelling around the bobbin, being held in its horizontal plane, during its circuit, by an iron ring loosely embraced by its lower end and fastened upon the traversing rail, being sufiiciently large to allow the head of the bobbin, as well as the traveller, to pass through without touching. This plan of spindle may be driven 8,000 revolutions per minute with perfect security when spinning coarse yarn, and when producing the finer numbers, 10,000 revolutions per minute is not an extraordinary speed for it to attain ; the yarn produced in either case being su- perior in strength and character to the yarn produced by the other throstles at a greatly reduced speed. The manufacture, as at present conduQted, is a most beautiful and complicated art. The raw material is divided into long staple, medium staple, and short staple. The staple means simply the length of. the fibre, and it is characteristic of the origin of the article. The first or long staple is used for the warps, or the longitudinal threads of a cloth. These threads must be made of long staple ; no other kind of cotton will spin into the fine numbers. The medium staple is used for the " weft," or cross threads of tissues. It is softer and silkier than the long staple, and fills up the fabric better. The long staple will not answer for this purpose. The quantity of cotton in the weft of cloth is from two to five times as much as that in the warp. The short staple is used for weft, but it is harsher and more like wool, and after washing or bleaching it makes the cloth meagre and thin. It is mixed with the medium staple in small proportions. This last and almost, when alone, useless sort is that which comes from India, and the first or k)ng staple is " sea island," raised on our southern coast. The medium staple, or that which is required for the great bulk of the manufactures, is alone found in the United States. It is that kind called " uplands," bowed Georgia, or New Orleans. The quality is a result of climate and soil. The cotton having reached the mill, it is requisite that all of the same staple, but of different qualities, should be well mixed, to INVENTIONS MODE OF MANUFACTURE PRINTING AGGREGATE. 287 give as uniform a character as possible to the cloth. To attain this, the contents of a bale are spread out upon the floor, and upon it another is scattered, and so on until a huge pile, called a " bing," has been raised ; a rake is then used to scrape down from the sides, thus mixing the whole as the cotton is required for the mill. This cotton is matted together and filled with dirt, sometimes by design to increase the Aveight fraudulently. It must, therefore, first of all be cleaned and the fibres loosened. For this purpose several machines are used. The favorite is a patent Willey, which is composed of two iron axles on a level with each other, each having four stout steel teeth. The teeth of both axles mesh together as they revolve, and also the fixed teeth attached to the inner casing of the box which contains them. These axles revolve 1,600 times in a minute, opening out the fibres and beating out the dirt from the cotton, which is blown through a tube by a revolving fan. The second machine through which the cotton passes is the spreading machine, the object of which is to perfect the clean- ing and loosening of the fibres. The cot- ton being carefully weighed and spread upon the feeding apron, passes in between a pair of rollers, where it meets the action of blunt knives revolving 1,700 times in a minute. The cotton coming from this ma- chine is flattened into a filmy sheet of uni- form thickness, and wound upon a roller. It is of the greatest importance that this feed- ing should be done evenly, as otherwise the "lap," as it winds upon the roller, will have thin and thick places, which will run through the subsequent manufacture. The laps that come from the spreader wound on rollers, are now to go through the third process, that of carding. The machine for this purpose we have described. It re- ceives the end of the lap from the roller of the spreader, and by its operation combs out and straightens the cotton into a delicate fleece, which the " dofFer" delivers through a funnel, whence it is drawn com- pressed, elongated, and consolidated by a pair of rollers, that drop it into a tin can. To the observer it appears like a stream of cream running into the tin can. For very fine yarns, this process is repeated with finer cards. The first carding is then called breaking. The fourth process for the cotton is the drawing. Hitherto the cotton has passed only through male hands; with the drawing it passes into those of females. The slivers, as they are dropped into the tin can from the carding machine, are exceedingly tender and loose, and the fibres are not yet arranged in the position proper for the manufacture of smooth yarn. This is to be perfected by the rollers of the drawing frame ; some frames have three pairs of rollers and others four. The distance between the pairs of rollers is such that the longest fibre of cotton will not reach from the centre of one roller to that of another pair. This prevents breaking the fibres, but the rollers must not be too far apart, lest the cotton separate in unequal thicknesses. The " doubling," by which the end of a new sliver is laid on the middle of one running in, equalizes the sliver. The more it is doubled and drawn, the more per- fect is the yarn, and this doubling is done sometimes 32,000 times. The fifth operation is the roving, or first spinning process. The slivers un- der the action of the drawing frame be- come so thin and tender they will no longer hold together, without a twist, and many machines are used for the purpose of imparting it, under the names of slubbin, fly frame, belt speeder, tube frame, and others. The operation is performed one or more times, according to the fineness of the yarn desired. The cans which receive the slivers from the drawing frames are placed upon revolving wheels, and the sliver passes from these to the fly frame. This came into use in 1817. In this frame the spindles are set vertically in one or two rows at equal distances apart, each passing through a bobbin, which is loosely attached to it, and which has a play equal to its length up and down on the spindle ; at the top of the spin- dle is suspended a fly with two dependent legs, one solid, and the other hollow. The roving enters this by an eye immediately above the top of the spindle, and passing down the hollow leg attaches to the bobbin. The revolving spindle carries the fly with it, spinning and winding the roving at the same time. At this point enters a very nice calculation. The roller on which the roving is wound delivers it with the exact speed of the spindle, but as the size of the bobbin on the latter increases, it going at the same speed would take up the yarn faster than the roller would deliver it, and would strain it too much. This is avoided by a contrivance which varies the speed of the bobbin to weet 288 COTTON MANUFACTURES. the circumstances. The rovings having re- ceived this twist, are now to be spun into yam, and this is done either by the throstle or the mule spinner. The difference in the motion and structure of these machines is not great. The former is similar to the bobbin and fly frame. The roving being unwound from the bobbin is elongated between three pairs of rollers, and is then spun and wound upon a bobbin as before. The greatest differ- ence in these machines is in the spindles. The oldest is the live spindle, and the dead spindle is that invented at Lowell, and that which has been most used here. The ring spindle of Jenks is fast superseding both. The thread being spun by any of these means is wound upon bobbins, and these are then set in a frame in such a manner that the threads can be wound off from them on to a large six-sided reel. This, one and a half yards in circumference, makes 560 revolutions, giving the length of a " hank ;" many hanks are wound on the reel at the same time, and when these are removed and weighed they give the number of the yarn. The coarsest yarn weighs half a pound to the hank, or 840 yards ; common quality gives ten to forty hanks to the pound. The finest seldom exceeds 300 hanks to the pound. Previous to 1840 no yarn finer than 350 was made in England ; at the World's Fair there was some exhibited 600, and some muslin for a dress for the queen was made of 460 yarn. This exceeds the "fairy tissues" of the east, mentioned in the fore part of this article. Thus machinery has overtaken east- em hand art. It has been stated that yarn has been spun 900, and one specimen of No. 2,150, or 1,026 miles for a pound of cotton! The finest yams are singed by being run through a gas flame ; they are then passed over a bmsh and run through a hole in a piece of brass just large enough to admit the yam. Any inequality then stops the yam and is immediately remedied. Upon most of the machines, throstles, and feeders there are clocks, which, wound up once a week, mark the quantity of work that each ma- chine does. From this register the account is transferred to a board which hangs in sight of all the operatives, and from which the monthly wages are ascertained. The yam being spun, the filling is now ready for the weaver, but the warp gofes to the dressing-room. Here the yarn is warped off from the spools on to the section beams. This is considered hard work, since it re- quires unremitting attention to reconnect the threads that are constantly breaking. The yarn now upon the beams undei'goes " dressing," or the application of the size before mentioned, and the friction of the brushes. The beams containing the dressed yarngo to the weaving-room, which usually is a large mill containing one hundred and fifty girls, and some six hundred looms. From this room the woven fabric goes to the cloth-room, where it is trimmed, measured, folded, and recorded, and either baled for market or sent to the print-works. The print-works are a -most interesting portion of the manufacture. The cloth re- ceived from the manufactory is covered with a fine nap, which, if printed, would rise up and give the colored parts a pepper-and-salt look. To get rid of this, the cloth is singed ; not as the cook singes a fowl, by a blaze, but by running the cloth over a half-cylinder of copper, heated red hot. The cloth is passed over dry, and repassed; after which it is moistened by wet rollers, to extinguish any shreds which might happen to be on fire. This singeing process always excites the wonder of the beholder, who is not a little astonished that the cloth is not injured. The next process is to bleach the cloth. On. the success of this depends all the after- work. A good white is not only the soul of a print, but without it no good and bril- liant color can be dyed. The greatest diffi- culty is to remove every trace of grease and oil, imparted by the spinner and weaver. The cloth is, therefore, put into big tubs, holding five hundred pieces, and steeped in warm water some hours. It is then washed in the dash-wheel, and subjected to the follow- ing operations, which convert the oil to soap, and remove with it the coloring matter : — 1. Boiled by steam in a creamy lime. 2. Washed in the dash-wheel. 3. Boiled in alkali by steam. 4. Washed in the dash-wheel. 5. Steeped in bleaching-powder solution some hours. 6. Steeped in oil vitriol and water, about the strength of lemon juice. 7. Washed in the dash-wheel. 8. Squeezed between rollers. 9. Mangled and dried in air, or in warm rooms built for this purpose. The cloth is now perfectly white, and loses not so much in weight and strength as by the old process of grass bleaching. The bleached cloth is now printed with one or Fig. 1. — LY all's patent positive motion power loom — COMPLETE, FifT. 4. — SHOWING MOTION OF SHUTTLE. Fig 2.— ELEVATION OF THE SHUTTLE AND SHUTTLE CARRIAGE. The most striking feature of these Looms is that the picking stick heretofore of univer- sal use is entirely dispensed with. The Shut- tle being carried through the Warps, is, with all other parts of the Loom, lield, controlled and acted upon by a direct and continuous connection with the motive power ; Irence the liability of a " smash " is entirely removed, and no injury can happen to the Beed. These are the only Looms iiT the world with a Positive Shuttle Motion ; therefore in case of the Loom being stopped during the passage of the Shuttle, or at any other time, each part is in place for starting again. The advantages of this Loom over all oth- ers may be briefly enumerated. 1st. — The unlimited scope of the Shuttle: — it being carried, instead of knocked tlirough the Warps, enables the carrying of large quan- tities of Weft any distance. 2d.— The friction of the Shuttle on the yarn is wholly overcome, therefore the Shuttle does not wear the Warps, nor break any threads, even in the finest fabrics of silk, wool, cotton or linen. 3d.— The Weft is not subject to sudden pulls in starting, hence may be of the most delicate texture, regardless of the width of the fabric. 4th. — The Reed moves but a little distance and wears less on the W^arps. 5th. — The Heddles do not require to be opened as wide as usual, thus avoiding much of the strain on the Warps. 6th. — The width of the Fabric may be extended indefinitely. 7th.— The Loom runs with less power, much more quietly than other Looms, and at any speed desirable. Li the manufacture of Silks and other Fine Dress Goods, the advantages are enormous ; the simplicity of the Loom, and the certainty of the Shuttle Motion, dispenses with the necessity for the skilled labor required on all other looms. This improvement can be applied to any other Loom. These Looms are now on exhibition, run by steam power on Silk, Woolen, and Cotton goods, one of them weaving a fabric Six Yards in Width, which is the largest Power Loom in tho world. Fig. 3. — SECTION OF THE LAY AND REED CONTAIN ING SHUTTLE AND SHUTTLE CARRIAGE. INVENTIONS MODE OF MANUFACTURE PRINTING AGGREGATE. 289 more colors. Four to six colors only could be applied by the printing machine up to 1845 ; if more were wanted, they were, until recently, introduced by hand, with blocks, after the other colors were finished. By a Boston invention, patented in 1851, twelve colors may now be printed. The improve- ment consists in the mode of applying pres- sure to the print rollers. A yielding pres- sure of several tons is given to each roller. The frame is also so constructed that any one of the rollers may be removed from the ma- chine without disturbing the others. The machine weighs ten tons, and is ten feet high. This huge machine is so nicely ad- justed that the cloth, while passing through it at the rate of a mile per hour, receives twelve colors each with the utmost precision. Ordinary machines will print 300 pieces, or 12,000 yards, per day, while, by the old hand process, it would have required 192,- 646 applications of the block. The figure, or design, is engraved on a copper roller, each color having a separate roller. The color which the beholder sees imprinted, as he watches the process, is not the color that is to be, when the print is finished. The color which he sees is, with the exception of brown, or blue, or black occasionally, fugitive. It is merely what is called " sightening" — that is, a color imparted to the paste, or "thickening," which is imprinted by the roller to enable the machine printer to judge of the perfectness of the work. The paste, or thickening, contains the mordant — that is, the peculiar substance which, combining chemically with the cloth, enables it to dye a peculiar color, according to the nature of the mordant and dye-wood. The cloth dyes only where the mordant is applied — that is, on the printed figure only. The mordants generally used are alum and copperas, each of which is first changed to acetate of alu- mina or iron — that is, the color-maker takes away the oil of vitriol from the alum and copperas, and substitutes vinegar in its place. Sometimes the iron liquor, as it is called, is made by dissolving iron turnings in pyrolig- neous or wood acid. The preparation of color, and the thickening it with flour, starch, gum, etc., is a distinct branch, carried on in the color shop of the print-works. It may be added, that with madder, iron dyes black and purple, according to its strength ; alum dyes red of various shades; and a mixture of the two dyes chocolate. So that out of the same dye-kettle come various 16 colors, according to the mordant, and these colors are all fast. The cloth having been printed and dried, is " aged," during which a chemical combi- nation takes place between the mordant and the cloth. Ordinarily, this occurs in two or three weeks by a natural affinity of the cotton fibre and mordant, but by certain agents, this chemical change is hastened and perfectly efibcted in two or three days ; yet as this process goes on in conjunction with the others, the visitor sees only the folding up and winding into rolls of the piece of cloth, though all the time this change is going on. The cloth is then passed, by means of rollers, through a boiling hot solu- tion oi phosphate of soda, to render insolu- ble any uncombined mordant, and to wet the cloth evenly. It is then washed in the dash-wheel, and after this, to remove the thickening, passed for twenty or thirty min- utes through bran or meal and water, quite hot, washed, and it is now ready for dyeing. The dye-woods used are madder, bark, or logwood — the last only for mourning prints, or black and white. The dye-wood is put into large wooden vats, with a portion of water, and then the pieces of cloth, sixteen in each vat, are introduced over a winch, moved by water power. Steam is then admitted, the goods turned through and through, round and round, gradually heat- ing the water, till at the end of two hours it rises near to boiling, and the mordanted cloth is perfectly dyed. It is taken out,, rinsed, and washed in the dash-wheel. The^ cloth after this is passed, by means of a winch, either through hot water and bran, or through hot soap, for half an hour, washed, and then again put through these operations, again washed, and then rinsed through a hot solution of chloride of soda, washed again, squeezed, and dried in either - air or in warm rooms. Sometimes they are mangled with some stiffening, and so are finished. The visitor of print works wilL see a great number of men busily employed dipping wooden frames, on which are stretched pieces of cloth, printed with a. brown figure, into deep vats, filled with a green- blue liquor. The cloth comes out with a. greenish hue, and immediately grows blue in the air on all parts, except where the brown figure was. That resists, or throws off the blue vat. Now, the blue vat contains a solu- tion of indigo in lime water. Indigo is on« of the most insoluble substances in water ;: / 290 COTTON '^MANUFACTURES. but by means of copperas and lime, the oxygen of the indigo is abstracted by the iron ; it then becomes greenish and is dis- solved by the lime-water. Exposed to air, it again absorbs oxygen and becomes blue. It is during this change from green to blue that it becomes chemically united to the cloth. The brown figure resists, because it is a preparation of copper, which yields its oxygen to the indigo on the figure while in the vat. The figure becomes covered with blue indigo in the vat ; it forms then no affinity with the cloth, and consequently after the copper has been removed by a weak acid, the brown spot or figure remains white, and so is produced the blue ground with white figures. The whole is a most exquisite chemical process from beginning to end, equalled only by the process for China blue, where blue figures are raised on a white ground. This is done by printing on the figure with fine ground indigo thickened with paste, and then by alternate immer- sions in lime water and copperas liquor, the indigo is dissolved and fixed on the spots where printed, by a play of chemical affini- ties similar to those described in blue dip- ping. Black and white, and red or chocolate and white, are made by passing the cloth through red or iron liquor, or their mixture, and after squeezing, while the cloth is open and flat, that is dried in hot flues. Every part of the cloth is thus imbued with mor- dant. The process is termed "pading." It is then printed with citric acid (lemon juice) thickened with roasted starch. This acid discharges the mordant, and conse- quently, when dyed as usual, the discharged figures are left white. Logwood is the dye for black, and madder is the dye for reds and chocolates. The designing of patterns is a distinct branch of art. Usually, one or more designers are employed in each estab- lishment. In the year 1840, there were thirty-six ' cotton-printing establishments in the United States. These were in New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, They printed 100,112,000 yards, at a value of 111,667,512. The exports of cotton goods from the United States in 1827 were valued at $951,- 000 for plain white cloths; |45,120 printed and colored ; $163,293 for yarn, etc. ; making together $1,159,413. In 1857, the exports of white had run to $3,463,230 ; and of printed to $1,785,685 ; dark and other manu- facture, $866,262; together, $6,115,117. In 1868, the exports of cotton manufactures were $4,970,385. The American cottons are much in demand in China, in consequence of their heavier quality than the English or Chinese goods. The value of cotton goods imported in 1856 was $25,917,999 ; and the average for sixteen years previous was $16,- 758,418. In 1868, the importation of cot- ton manufactures were, in currency, $23,355,- 000. The imported goods are mostly of the finer description, nearly all from England and Scotland, and mostly into the port of New York, under the credit system of sales. We» may here add the progress of the trade in Great Britain : — Horse power. 1851, 134,217 1857, 161,435 Spindle 25,038.114 33,503,580 32,000,014 Xooms, Cotton used, lbs. 301,445 757,379,749 369,205 1,023,886,528 379,329 1,005,463,536 1857. 275 $0 12 0 10 0 22 The following comparative figures will show the decline in the cost of the yarn, as a result of machinery; — No. 40 yam. 1812. 1830. Hanks per spindle per day. 200 2'J5 Cotton per lb $0 36 $0 14 Labor " " 0 24 0 15 Cost yarn *' , 0 60 0 29 The manufacture progressed in this coun- try according to the wants of the population, and these wants increased in the two-fold ratio of more means and greater numbers. The progress here was also more steady than it is abroad, for the reason that the demands of the people were not curtailed by those periodical famines, which abroad cause every other consideration to yield to that of food. We may sum in the following table the pro- gress of the manufacture since 1809: — COTTON MA.Nt7FACTURK IN THE UNITED STATES. No. of o • ji Factories. Spindles. 1809 62 31,000 1820 250,572 1831 795 1,246,503 1840 1,240 2,284,631 1850 1,074 4,052,000 I860 1,091 5,235,727 1869 831 7,023,883 Hands. 4,000 57,466 72,119 97,956 122,028 Cotton used, lbs. 3,600,000 9,945,609 77,757,316 132,835,856 276,074,100 422,704,975 470,000,000 Yards cloth 230,461,990 398,507,568 828,222,300 1,148,252,406 1,410,000,000 Capital. $40,614,984 51,102,359 76,032,578 98,585,269 paper: its manufacture. 291 The figures for 1809 are those of Mr. Gal- latin, and those of 1820 those of the United States marshal. Those for 1831 are taken from the report of the committee before allud- ed to, and the succeeding ones from the de- cennial censuses. The war, of course, efiected material changes in the cotton manufacture, both in enhancing the cost of the raw material and the manufactured product. The manu- facture of cotton yarns in the south and south- west at one time almost entirely ceased, and the supply of cotton goods in that section was obtained from England, and only by running the blockade. The price of bleached cotton shirtings and sheetings, of good brands, went up to 75 or 80 cents per yard for goods sold at 10 cents per yard or below, in 1861. Spool cotton brought $1.25 to $1.50 per doz- en, against 35 to 45 cents, in 1861. Since the close of the war many new cotton manu- factories have been started in the south. The total number of factories has somewhat di- minished, but those running are larger, and the number of spindles, the amount of cotton used, and the number of yards made is about 25 per cent, greater than in 1860. The quality of the printed goods is better than it was at that time, though that of the bleached goods is not, owing to the introduction of short staple cotton in the weft. The manu- facture will, doubtless, increase greatly, and especially in the southern states, where a con- siderable saving can be effected in the trans- portation of cotton, and where a demand for better qualities of cotton goods is springing up. The female operatives at the south, are mostly from the families of the poor whites, though a few factories employ colored wo- men. In the north, the American-born fac- tory girls, farmers' daughters, have very largely given place to Irish, German, Swed- ish, and French women of less intelligence, and who are willing, generally, to work at somewhat lower wages. PAPER: ITS MANUFACTURE. CHAPTER I. MATERIALS— PROGRESS. If the question were put, " What single ar- ticle has been of the greatest service to man- kind?" mature reflection would, we think, decide upon paper as that article, since it has been the means by which thought and ideas have been diffused, not only among cotemporaries, but preserved, and, as it were, accumulated in magazines for future expansion and growth. All other inventions, and per- haps the whole growth of civilization, are due to the material of paper. Every branch of knowledge is reached, and every avenue to the wisdom of great minds and the results of genius are explored only by means of paper, and its blessings are diff"used through all ranks of society. Even he who, wrapt in his igno- rance, despises " book laming," enjoys a part of those benefits of civilization which paper has been the means of imparting to all. Like al- most all great blessings, however, it has been developed most rapidly and completely in the United States. Almost all vegetable sub- stances were used for the manufacture of pa- per by our ancestors, but it was not until the fourteenth century that linen rags became generally the material. The first GeiTuan paper mill was established at Nuremberg in 1390; some English manuscripts, however, date as far back as 1340, on linen paper. The first English mill mentioned is in 1496, by John Tate, jun., in Hertfordshire. In 1588 a paper mill was started at Dartford. It is to be conceived, however, that in that age, when books and newspapers were little used, and walls were draped with cloth, that paper was not much in demand, and many improvements were not made in the manu- facture. In the early part of the eighteenth century, the manufacture was introduced into the colonies. Mr. J. M. Willcox, a paper maker near Philadelphia, stated that in 1725 his grandfather, who had been educated a paper maker, came over and settled where the mill now is, and he erected in 1732 a mill for the manufacture of paper. The kind of paper then made was of the description used by clothiers for press-boards, for the pressing of cloth. There existed at that time an act of parliament against the manufacture of any other kind of paper in the colonies. There were at that time two other mills in the same paper: its manufacture. business, one near Boston and another near Philadelphia. The demand for paper at that time, either for books or newspapers, was small, and not of a character to attract much capital into the business. When the war came on, a demand sprung up, and Mr. Will- cox manufactured the paper for the conti- nental money, and at the same time ccftn- menced making writing paper for the first time in America. The Massachusetts Bay assembly, in 1728, passed an act for the encouragement of the paper manufacture. They granted to Daniel Henchman and others the right of making paper, on condition that within the first fifteen months they would make 140 reams of brown paper and sixty reams of printing paper. Of this the board of trade report of 1731 says: "By a paper mill set up three years ago, they make to the value of £200." This, with the mill of Willcox and another near Philadelphia, were the only ones exist- ing at that time ; but the trade grew to a considerable extent. Coxe, in his "Views of the United States," says there were in 1794 forty-eight mills in Pennsylvania. In 1810, the value of paper made in the United States was about $2,000,000. The general govern- ment, from its origin, did what it could to encourage the manufacture, by making rags free; curiously enough, however, after the fall of Napoleon, a considerable quantity of paper came to this country, and was bought up by the contractors to supply Congress ; and for a long time, up to 1 825, the paper used by the United States Senate bore the water line, "Napoleon, Empereur et Eoi, 1813." It was about the year 1760 that the inven- tion of wove moulds was made to obviate the roughness of laid paper. This led to the manufacture in France of what is called vellum paper. In Holland, soon after, the manufacture was improved by the invention of cylinders with long steel knives to reduce the rags to pulp, thus superseding the old plan, which was by stampers. It was then customary to pile the rags in large stone vats, and let them remain for a month or six weeks to ferment and rot by soaking and stirring in water. By these means the fibres became loosened, and sufficiently soft to be reduced to pulp in the large wooden stampers. The vats were now supplanted by engines. These are arranged in pairs. That which first receives the rags is called the washer, working the rags coarsely, while a stream of water runs through them. The contents of this vat, when ready, is called half stuff , and is let off" into the other engine, which is on a lower level, and this beats or grinds the whole into pulp for making paper. From the date of the Revolution until the year 1820, there was very little improvement in the mode of making paper by machinery. The number of mills increased in proportion to the demand for material for newspapers and book-making. This grew in such a man- ner, that by the year 1810 the ordinary sup^ plies of material for paper making began to fail, and rags from Europe were imported in greater quantities for that purpose. The principal supplies of rags in the United States came from the economy of families, purchased by ragmen who called — some- times paying money, and at others exchang- ing tinware and other commodities. It is only of late years, and that in the large cities, that the European chiffonniers, or rag- pickers, have made their appearance. These are now to be seen, male and female, with the early dawn, armed with a bag and a long iron hook, watching the opening and sweep- ing out of stores, to pick up every shred of rag or paper, and following the gutters the live-long day, thrusting the iron hook into filth of all descriptions to fish out matter for the paper maker. This they rinse in the nearest puddle, and deposit in their bag. Many of them earn a fair living at this unpromising occupation. Nevertheless, the supply is very inadequate, and large importations are re- sorted to. The quantity of imports is as fol- lows : — IMPOETATION OF BAGS INTO THE UNITED STATES. Rags imported . Of which Yalue. ^ Per lb. lbs. from Italy. cts. 1846, 9,897,706 8,002,865 $385,020 3.89 1847, 8,154,886 6,529,234 304,177 3.73 1848, 17,014,587 13,803,036 626,136 3.68 1849, 14,941,236 11,009,608 524,437 2.51 1850, 20,696,875 15,861,266 747,157 3.61 1851, 26,094,701 18,512,673 902,876 3.46 1852, 18,288,458 12,220,579 622,876 3.42 1853, 22,766,000 14,171,292 985,465 4.31 1854, 32,615,753 24,240,999 1,007,826 3.69 1855, 40,013,516 23,948,612 1,224,413 3.06 1856, 38,727,017 20,817,204 1,239,168 3.20 1857, 44,582,080 27,317,580 1,448,125 3.27 1860, 43,300,000 30,310,000 1,448,400 3.27 1862, 5,088,449 7,567,703 241,738 2.69 It may be remarked that the export of linen rags is strictly prohibited from Holland, Belgium, France, Spain, and Portugal. The import from Italy has been nearly 70 per cent. The rags thence derived are mostly- linen which has been used for outer gar- MATERIALS PROGRESS. 293 ments, and which have become whitened by exposure to sun and air. That circumstance formerly gave them a value which they have lost since the improvements in bleaching all descriptions. The linen rags from the north of Europe are stronger and darker. The quantity of rags used in the United States in 1850 was, according to the value reported in the census, nearly 200,000,000 lbs., and 20,- 696,875 lbs. were imported in that year. The importation subsequently more than doubled, and it was estimated, in 1869, that the quantity used is 1,170,000,000 lbs. ; and as 1-^ pounds of paper stock give one pound of paper, the product would be 780,000,000 lbs. This compares with the English and French returns as follows :— Paper stock Paper made Lbs. per consumed. annually. head con- lbs, lbs. sumed. United States.. 1,1 70,000,000 780,000,000 19.27 Great Britain. . . 448,800,000 298,700,000 34.55 France 235,200,000 140,083,447 3.89 There is serious reason to fear that the supply of available paper stock will, within a few years, be so far inadequate to supply the demand that the cost of paper will be greatly enhanced. Rags proved insufficient as long ago as 1862 or 1863, and resort has since been had to other materials. A book written in Germany by M. Schaffer, so long ago as 1772, contains sixty specimens of paper made of different materials. This in- genious person made paper from the bark of the willow, beech, aspen, hawthorn, lime, and mulberry ; from the down of the ascle- pias, the catkins of black poplar, and the tendrils of the vine ; from the stalks of net- tle, mugwort, dyer's weed, thistle, bryony, burdock, clematis, willow-herb, and lily; from cabbage -stalks, fir-cones, moss, potatoes, wood-shavings, and saw-dust. Paper has been likewise made from straw, hopbind, licorice root, the stalks of the mallow, the husks of Indian corn, the unbroken flax and hemp stalk, the canes, brakes, and giant rushes of the Carolina coast, the tule rush of Califor- nia, the okra plant, the esparto grass, a Spanish heath growing on sandy plains in that country, the spartina fibre of the Mis- sissippi valley, and the aloes and agaves of Texas, Mexico, and Central America. There is no difficulty in making paper from any fibrous plant. The only questions to be an- swered are : Can the fibre be furnished in sufficient quantity, and at a price low enough to compete successfully with other paper stock? We think these inquiries can be answered affirmatively in regard to the spar- tina fibre in the Mississippi valley, the tule rush on the Pacific, the okra at the south, and perhaps, the marsh mallow, basswood, the North Carolina brake, and refuse hay at the east. Straw will answer a good purpose for some descriptions of paper, such as straw paper and board, and many descriptions of papier-mache. It is used largely for news and cheap printing papers, but is too tender and brittle to be of much value, both from its excess of silica and the protracted bleach- ing it requires to give it a good color. Of course rags will be used so long as they can be supplied at moderate rates, but they did not supply one-third of the 1,170,000,000 pounds of paper stock consumed in 1869. The vast increase in the consumption of paper in the United States, which amounts to almost six-fold in twenty years, and nearly three-fold in ten, is not due wholly, perhaps not mainly, to the increase in the produc- tion of books, newspapers, and periodicals. These have, indeed, made a wonderful ad- vance within ten years past, greater than any where else in the world ; but during the same time paper and paper pulp have been applied to a great number of new uses. Paper collars and cuffs alone consume several million dollars' worth of paper; paper for stereotyping newspapers, making clothing, the soles of shoes, boots, the walls of houses, picture frames, twine, roofing felt, sheathing for houses and ships, doors, boxes of all sizes and for all purposes, bags for flour, meal, grain, and groceries of all sorts, bridges, casts, artificial flowers, &c., &c., all consume such quantities that the wonder is that a sufficiency of stock can be obtained at any price. When, in addition to this, we remem- ber that the number of newspapers and peri- odicals now in circulation is nearly three times as great as it was ten years ago ; that the quantities of books sold have nearly or quite doubled, we shall see that there is am- ple demand for all the paper we are likely to be able to manufacture, and that the $72,- 000,000 worth manufactured in 1869 will become $100,000,000 by 1875, and $150,- 000,000 by 1880 or soon after. Some thirty years since, after the great revulsion of 1837, cotton was so cheap that large quantities were manufactured into paper. It is ordinarily too dear for that purpose. When the rags are received at the mill, thev are sorted according to their respective 294 paper: its manufacture. qualities; for if rags of different qualities were ground together at the same engine, the finest and best parts would be ground and carried off before the coarser were suffi- ciently reduced to make a pulp. In the sorting of rags intended for the manufacture of fine paper, hems and seams are kept apart, and coarse cloth separated from fine. Cloth made of tow should be separated from that made of linen ; cloth of hemp from cloth of flax. Even the degree of wear should be attended to, for if rags comparatively new are mixed with those which are much worn, by the time the first are reduced to a good pulp, the others are so completely ground up as to pass through the hair strainers, thus occasioning not only loss of material but loss of beauty in the paper; for the smooth, vel- vet softness of some papers may be pro- duced by the finer particles thus carried off. The pulp produced from imperfectly sorted rags has a cloudy appearance, in consequence of some parts being less reduced than others, and the paper made from it is also cloudy or thicker in some parts than in others, as is evident on holding a sheet up before the light. When it is necessary to mix differ- ent qualities of materials, the rags should be ground separately, and the various pulps mixed together afterward. The rag mer- chants sort rags into five qualities, known as Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. No. 1, or superfine, consisting wholly of linen, is used for the finest writing papers. No. 5 is canvas, and may, after bleaching, be used for inferior printing papers. There is also rag-hagging, or the canvas sacks in which the rags are packed, also cotton colored rags of all colors, but the blue is usually sorted out for making blue paper. Common papers are made from rag-bagging and cotton rags. An operation sometimes required after unpacking the rags is to put them into a duster, which is a cylinder four feet in diameter and five feet long, covered with a wire net, and inclosed in a tight box to confine the dust. A quan- tity of rags being put into this cylinder, it is made to rotate rapidly on its axis, and thus a great deal of dust is shaken out, which might otherwise vitiate the air of the rag- cutting room. The sorting is done by wo- men and children in a large room. The rags are sorted, according to their fineness, into the superfine, the fine, the stitches of the fine, the middling, the seams and stitches of the middling, and the coarse. These divisions are more or less observed at the present day. The very coarse parts are rejected, or laid aside for making white-brown paper. The paper was formerly made into sheets by means of the mould and deckle. The mould was a square frame or shallow box of ma- hogany, covered at the top with wire cloth ; it is an inch or an inch and a half wider than the sheet of paper intended to be made upon it. The wire cloth of the mould varies in fineness with that of the paper and the nature of the stuff ; it consists of a number of parallel wires stretched across a frame very near together, and tied fast through holes in the sides ; a few other stronger wires are also placed across at right angles to the former; they are a considerable distance apart, and are bound to the small wires at the points of intersection by means of fine wires. In several kinds of writing paper the marks of the wires are evident, from the pa- per being thinner in the parts where the pulp touches the wires. In what is called wove paper, there are no marks of the wires; these are avoided by weaving the wire in a loom into a wire cloth, which is stretched over the frame of a mould, and being turned down over the sides is fastened by fine wire. The water-mark in paper is produced by wires bent into the shape of the required letter or device, and sewed to the surface oi the mould ; it has the effect of making the paper thinner in those places. The old makers employed water-marks of an eccen- tric kind. Those of Caxton and other early printers were an ox head and star, a collared dog's head, a crown, a shield, a jug, etc. A fool's cap and bells employed as a water- mark gave the name to foolscap paper; a postman's horn, such as was formerly in use^ gave the name to post paper. Connected with the sizing of papers is the blueing, which is said to have originated in the sug- gestion of a paper maker's wife, who thought that the practice of improving the color of linen while passing through the wash, by means of a blue-bag, might also be advanta- geously applied to paper. A blue-bag was accordingly suspended in the vat, and the effect proved to be so satisfactory that it led to the introduction of the large and impor- tant class of blue writing paper. It was soon found that smalt gave a better color than common stone-blue, and smalt continued to be used for many years ; but when artificial ultramarine came to be manufactured at a very low cost, and in a great variety of tints. ^:g-S i £ - * - 0) S bD „ ^^ti >-> 03 ^ oQ J>i^ ^n . 03-^ ^a b2 =«'^ §5 S ^ o «•" § J3 5^ e S 05 3 Si b G cS s^a a)oa5;_Otnrrt&D .«2 >»TtH S o o ^ ^ O be fl g ^ « M 02 •^ 2 "^ =« O jKJ cu , i c) :^ 3 > ^ o g ^ S .3 ^ £ .2 -J ® ^ ^ ^ 2 ^^ ® =* .2 _'-; eg ^ 2 S ^2 8h If I Is i vn "l* .tS ^ +3 G^ bC^ S'S iii 00 © > '2 © , ^ rrr © ^ O !- 73 : 73 I Ills i g i^© o-g S , © . +J Ir- ^ cS CO & > =« S * d o ^ 2^3 J — j=; rrt g &p § .2 "^ O '© 02 © -g ^ o © o"J=^ V o S 00 -— ri; © c © „ o c c ^ © 73 t-, © g m © © ^ 0 ^t- DQ o o 3 rt r^ t, bfc P^ o g £ ° .S G be'© ^ .B o =1 .2 g ^.S ^.g «-^ § "^ '+-' ^ CO 05 73 ca © aS .S © o .S 2 o INVENTIONS MANUFACTURE. 295 this beautiful color gradually superseded smalt in the manufacture of writing paper. From 1820 to 1830, some eftbrts were made to introduce into the United States machinery from Europe. England and France were before us in its introduction. Several machines were sent out from Eng- land ; some very imperfect, and the cost too great for our manufacture. The patronage then offered was no inducement to our own machinists to construct so expensive a ma- chine until 1830, about which time Phelps & Spofford of Windham, Connecticut, made one which answered very well. Soon after, the country was supplied at a reasonable cost, and equal in quality to the best English. Not long afterward, Howe s. left hand a bow with a stiff string, he vibmted the string in such a manner as to strike the wool, and cause it to fly out clear and loose. When quite clear, it was formed by hand into a cone form nearly three times as large as the proposed hat body. To keep the light wool to- gether, it was placed between two cloths. It was then immersed in water, and con- tinually rolled in different directions upon a short round stick held in the hands of the operator. This operation caused the hat to felt or shrink into the proper size and shape. Being then in the sugar-loaf form, it was stretched upon the hat block that gave it its shape, and the manufacture proceeded with, until, napped with fur and trimmed, it was ready for sale. About 30 years since, machines for forming the bodies were introduced, and these soon supplanted the old hand system. The wool was washed with soft soap as a substitute for urine, the lye of the soap being equally efficacious in removing the grease. WhcD dry and clean, the wool was passed through the " picker," made with a cylinder covered with long teeth. As this revolved with great velocity, it took from a pair of rollers the wool, separated it, straightening the fibres, and cleaning it of dust at the same time. This wool was then passed through the breaker, or carding machine, as in preparation for spinning ; but as the broad fleece comes off the dofter, instead of being drawn into a ribbon, it is received upon a pair of light wood cones, placed with their bases together. To these a vibratory motion is given at the same time that they revolve. The result is, that the fleece of wool winds over them in contrary directions, until they appear like a large cocoon. When about 3 oz. are wound upon the cones, the boy who tends cuts them apart with shears, and by a rapid movement removes the 19 woolly cap from the cone, which instantly resumes its motion. These caps, so removed, are perfectly formed "bodies," ready to be felted in the usual manner. The regularity and rapidity of the formation enables a " body" to be formed with much less wool than by the hand system. Instead of 3 to 4 ozs. for a hat, a perfect body was now formed of 1 oz. weight. This process of the wool manufacture grew rapidly, until a ma- chine was invented to form hat bodies of fur. The difficulty in that respect had been that the fur could not be carded into a fleece like the wool. A machine was then in- vented, by which the air was exhausted under a fine wire gauze, and the fur flying was drawn upon this and partly felted into a ribbon, which was wound upon cones for the hat bodies. The next process was to form the cone itself full of holes, and, by ex- hausting the air, the fur is caused to settle upon it evenly, in weight sufficient for a body. These fur hats caused those of wool to rank second. The felting qualities of wool have, how- ever, caused it to be used for many other purposes, such as piano-covers, drugget, and. for the manufacture of cloth without weav- ing. This is called beaver cloth, and is difficult to detect, by the eye, from woven cloth. Several manufactories of this descrip- tion are in operation in Connecticut. The wool being worked and "picked," is carded in a machine which is double the width of the ordinary one, in order to deliver a fleece or web six feet wide instead of three. This "web" is, as it is delivered by the machine,, carried out, in a horizontal direction, 21 feet, and so doubled in folds until it gets a proper thickness for felting. Inasmuch as that the process of felting causes a web to contract more in breadth than in length, it becomes necessary, to give the cloth a proper consistency, that the webs should cross.: To do this two machines are placed at right angles with each other, and as the web of one is extended, that of the other crosses it. When the proper thickness is thus attained, the whole is rolled upon a beam, and trans- fen-ed to the felting table. Here a »umber of cloths are laid together upon an endless apron, the movement of which carries them forward over an iron plate, perforated with holes, through which steam ascends, and thoroughly heats and saturates the cloths, which proceed under a platen, to which steam power imparts a rapid vibratory mo- 306 WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES. tion, which felts the cloth. When this is com- pleted, the cloth is dyed of the requisite color, and then subjected to the fulling and teasling process, like a woven cloth. For those heavy coat cloths that are in the style called Peter- shams, another process is substituted. It consists in passing the cloth under a sort of press, of which the lower side, on which the cloth rests, is stationary, and the upper, being covered with sand, receives a rapid, rotatory, vibratory motion, which rolls up the nap into those little knots that are the distinctive feature of Petersham. The nature of these cloths permits of giving them two colors. Thus a dark and a drab color may be felted together to form one cloth, of which the inside is of a different color from the outside. These cloths are used to some extent by the clothiers, but their durability is said not to be such as to recommend them. Of all people, the American shows the most remarkable inclination for good car- pets. It seems to be impossible for him to walk comfortably through life without a carpet under his feet. Every man who oc- cupies a few square feet of house-room must have the brick or the boards protected from his tread by so much carpeting. Here car- peting appears in a thousand places where, in other parts of the world, it is never seen. The English shopkeeper thinks the bare boards good enough for the reception* of his customers, and seldom does the mer- chant think of adding to the elegance of his counting-room by laying down a square of Bnissels. Only those churches devoted to the service of the more aristocratic worship- pers, are furnished with the comforts of Kid- derminster— the bare wood, or bricks, or stone, being considered more consonant with " the self-denying duties of the sanctuary." Widely difterent is it with the well-to-do American. He believes in enjoying life; •and considering that carpets contribute to life's enjoyment, he does not hesitate to spread every place where he is accustomed to tread with a due quantity of three-ply, or tapestry, or Brussels, or Turkey. Yet, with- al, the quantities imported are apparently in- adequate to this general demand. The number of yards, of all descriptions, im- • ported, is about 1,500,000 per annum — a quantity that might suffice for 15,000 houses; but in 1850, according to the cen- sus, there were 3,362,000 dwellings in the •Union. It follows, that by far the largest portion of carpets are furnished by home manufacture. The carpets most m use m this country are known as •* rag carpets," as ingrain, three-ply, Venetian, tapestries, Brus- sels, velvets, Wilton. The Turkey, Axmin- ster, and Persian carpets are used but little, and manufactured not at all. The ingrain carpet is made with two sets of worsted warp, and two sets of woollen weft. It con- sists of two distinct webs, incorporated into each other by the warp threads passing from one to the other to bring the required colors to the surface. Each web is, however, a cloth of itself, which, if separated by cutting from the other, would present a coarse sur- face, like baize. Two colors only are used with effect in this kind of carpet. The three-ply is similar, but prodi;ced by three webs, making a thicker carpet, with a greater number of colors. The pattern in this does not appear in opposite colors, as in the two-ply. This fabric was long thought not adapted to power looms, but in 1839, Mr. Bigelow, of Lowell, improved the matter, so that weavers, who were then making 8 yards per day by hand, could make 12 yards per day by power. This plan has since been so improved, that power looms are now wholly used, with such economy of labor as greatly to reduce the cost of car- pets. The hand weaver could always tighten the weft thread, if he found it too loose to make the selvage regular, and if he saw that the weft thread was too irregular to make the figure a just proportion, he imparted more or less force in beating it up. The judgment and skill of the weaver was thus a great element in the production of the goods. Mr. Bigelow, in his first loom, contrived to take up the woven cloth by an unerring motion, the same amount for every beat of the lathe. His next step was to regulate the tension of the threads, so as to keep the selvage smooth, and the figure regular. In this he succeeded so as to bring the two- ply loom to 27 yards per day, and the three-ply loom to 18 yards. His method of producing figures that will match was patented in 1845. The same machine was found to be applicable to Brussels and tap- estry carpets, the weaving of which by power was before thought to be impractica- ble. They were made at the rate of 4 yards per day by hand. This has been increased to 20 yards per day by the new process. The figures of the carpets are also made so as to match perfectly, and surpass the best carpets made in any other part of the world. CARDING WEAVING FELTING. 307 These looms are used in factories built for them in Lowell and Clinton, Massachusetts ; Thompsonville, Connecticut; three large factories are in operation in New York and Philadelphia, and other cities have lately established them. The Brussels carpet takes its name from the capital of Belgium, whence it was introduced into England in the last century. It is made upon a ground of linen weft, which is con- cealed by the worsted threads that interlace and cover it. The threads are generally of five different colors. In w^eaving, these run the length of the web, and are so managed that all those required by the pattern are brought up together across the line of the carpet. Before they are let down, a wooden instrument called a sword is passed through, to hold up the threads. This is replaced by a wound wire, which being at last removed, leaves a row of loops across the carpet. In a yard there are sometimes 320 successive lifts of the sets of colors required, each of which forms a row of loops. Four colors must always lie beneath the 5th, which ap- pears on the surface, and thus the carpet is thick and heavy. The Wilton carpet differs from the Brussels in that the loops are cut before the wire is removed. A groove runs in the wire to receive the edge of the cut- ting knife. The soft ends of the cut loops give the carpet its velvet appearance. In Imperial Brussels, the loops of the figures only are cut. Here a new invention was brought into use to make "tapestry and velvet pile." This is a combination of the arts of printing and w^eaving. The principle is this: if a rose-bud occurs a thousand times in the length of a web, at 4 feet apart, the block printer must apply his block a thousand times to print the bud. By the new process the thread is wound a thousand times round a cylinder 4 feet in circumfer- ence, and a turning wheel, charged with color, passes across the coil. The thread unwound is found to be marked in a thou- sand places exactly where it is wanted. The threads are thus all parti-colored, and singly show no regular figure ; but when arranged in the proper order for the weaver's beam, the figures come into view much elongated. Sometimes 18 feet of warp will be gathered into 4 feet of cloth, in order to secure the due proportion of the intended object. By this system the number of colors, that could not exceed 6 or 7 by the old plan, is now increased to 20 or 30, or any number ; and instead of a change of blocks for every pattern, the same blocks serve for all pat- terns. The wool used for carpets is imported from South America and the East Indies. Of that obtained from South America, the best is the Cordova, which is worth here 22-|^ and 23 cents per lb., and next in grade to it ranks the Buenos Ayres, worth 13 and 14 cents per lb. The East India wools all rank still lower, and are generally of a dark color. It may be interesting to follow the wool in its passage through the various processes which transform it from its hard, dirty, and oily mass, lying in bales, to the brilliant velvety pile worthy the foot of Flora McFlimsey. The material passes in the usual way, from the wash to the combing machines, which separate the long from the short fibres. The long are passed through rollers, and assume a form entitled a " sliver," which is allowed to fall into a hollow cylinder set for the pur- pose, while the short fibres disappear in a mysterious-looking box at one side of the room. These slivers are then passed through a drawing frame, twenty or more of them united, and drawn out so as to equalize the thread; eight or ten of these threads are again subjected to the drawing process and reduced to one, which operation is repeated as often as is necessary to produce uniform- ity. These long fibres, so carefully put through this process, are intended to form the warp of the carpets, while the short fibres are used for the " woof " or " filling." In the spinning-room, both staples of wool come together to be spun on the long, clash- ing, clattering "spinning jacks," twelve in number, some of them spinning 256 and others 308 threads at once. When it leaves the "jacks" it is in the form of coarse yarn, tightly rolled on large spools, from which it is wound into skeins and is ready for the dye house. By a curious system of folding, of a recent American invention, part of the yarn skeins are, after being scoured (a process ap- plied to all yarns to free them from their natural oil), subjected to a parti-colored dye- ing— and thus the same skein, or frame of skeins, may sometimes bear half a dozen dif- ferent colors. These parti-colored yarns are used for warp. Other bundles of yam are submerged in rolling, steaming floods of col- ored liquids of every hue. That portion in- tended to be used white, is bleached by means of sulphur in houses erected for the purpose on the river bank. From the dye- 308 WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES. ing-room, the yarn is conveyed to the drying- room, immediately over the engine boilers, and after it has become thoroughly dried, is conveyed to the winding-room, where winding machines, worked by girls, are at work, fill- ing spools and bobbins from the skeins; and no sooner are the spools filled than they are unfilled by the warping machines, five of which are constantly in operation. The threads are here wound upon the large cylin- ders for the printers, and each filling of this great cylinder makes but a single thread in the warp of a single pattern, so that for a piece having 208 threads in its width, the cylinder must be filled and carefully printed a corresponding number of times. These monster skeins, after being printed, some- times with 100 or more shades of colors, each laid on in straight lines by a small printing roller, travelling across beneath the large cylinder, are packed at full length in rice chafi", and having been placed in boxes on a little railroad car, are shoved into a boiler, where from 4 to 6 lbs. pressure of steam is applied. When the colors have been thoroughly fixed by the means we have stated, the skeins are dried and passed through what are termed setting machines, when the yarn is ready for the Bigelow loom. These have on the end of each of the little wires used to raise the pile of the Brus- sels carpet, a small knife, which, while it weaves, cuts the pile and makes it " velvet." The next machines to which the fabric is sub- jected, are for shaving the velvet, and girls are employed in trimming the under side of the goods and preparing them for the rolling ma- chine. Here the carpets are rolled, marked with the number of the pattern of each roll, number of yards, etc., and thus prepared for removal to the warehouse. The lengths of the pieces usually are : velvets, from 40 to 60 yards ; tapestries, 50 to 60 yards ; and in- grains, from 100 to 110 yards. The value of carpets made in Massachu- setts, Connecticut, New York, and the United States, according to the census of 1860, was as follows : Mass. Conn. N. Y. U. S. Capital invested «1,981,900 $700,500 $1,017,068 $4,721,938 Rands employed 1,361 701 1,902 6 683 Cost of raw material . 1,530,903 614.500 885,790 4 419 561 Annual cost of labor. 334,184 179,304 358,800 1546*328 value of prod't; 2,358,278 893,100 1,626,972 7,860,351 These returns were doubtless far below the truth. The manufacture of long shawls, for men's use, was pushed to a great extent a few years since. The Bay State Mills be- came famous for these shawls, and used for them 3,000,000 lbs. of wool per annum. The delicate yarn, known as zephjrr worsted, is much used on these machines, greatly promoting the manufacture of those articles which it has been the rage to knit of late. The demand for that yarn causes frauds to enter into the sale. Each pound of zephyr is divided into 16 laps, which are sold without weighing, as containing each one ounce of wool. Full weight w ould be 16 drachms to the ounce lap, or if stored in over dry atmosphere, 15| drachms; but the fraud consists in putting up only 15, 14, 12, or 10 drachms in each ounce lap, the num- ber of laps in a pound being the correct number — 16. These frauds are difficult to detect, as the dishonest dealer is provided with false weights, which make his goods appear on trial to be correct. The ounce of the apothecary shops contains more grains than the true standard avoirdupois ounce, so that it cannot be tested there. The proper remedy would be to inquire continually of dealers whether their goods are full weight or short weight, to show that public atten- tion is directed to the matter, and to com-, pare articles bought at different stores, by putting them on the opposite scales of a bal- ance, and noticing where goods are sold by true or best weight. The production of hosiery and fancy knit work has become very important in the last ten or fifteen years. The supply of those articles came previously from England, but within that time the manufacture of these articles has received a great development, particularly in Philadelphia. The fine Amer* ican wool is well adapted to the manufac- ture. The business is largely carried on in families and by hand looms. There are large factories devoted to the production of opera hoods, scarfs, comforters, etc. The wool is prepared in the usual way, by card- ing and spinning, and is bleached, dyed, and printed according to the designs required. In the weaving, some fifteen or twenty differ- ent kinds of looms are employed. One has recently been invented for weaving neck- comforts. It weaves four neck-comforts of a double fabric, and each of a diff'erent pat- tern. The Jacquard principle, used in car- pets for years, is applied to it, and almost any design may be produced. The machin- ery is changed to suit the goods — hoods, CLOTHING TRADE TOTAL MANUFACTURE. 309 talmas, opera cloaks, neck-comforts, scarfs, hose of every description. A large estab- lishment in Philadelphia uses 250,000 lbs. of wool per annum in these articles. CHAPTER II. CLOTHING TRADE— TOTAL MANUFACTURE —SHODDY. Until within the last thirty-five years, the ready-made clothing trade was confined almost entirely to the furnishing of sailors' sea fit-outs, or slops. The stores for this purpose were mostly in the neighborhood of shipping offices, and kept to some extent by sailor landlords, whose business philanthropy led them to coax "poor Jack" into their "cribs" on his arrival, and feast him high while his earnings lasted; and as soon as these were nearly gone, ship him on board some vessel, obtain his advance pay, which is, in the navy, three months, or $36, and in the merchant marine, one month, varying from $12 to $20, according to the demand for seamen. If this is not all due the landlord, he supplies slops at enormous rates for the balance, gets Jack dead drunk, and puts him on board at the last moment in that condition. In such a business, ready-made clothing was indispensable, but otherwise there was little market for made- up goods. Most families in the country made their own clothes. But as taste and wealth improved, the difficulty of " cutting out" called into being a special trade, and most villages and towns in the country were visited by professional persons, who boarded round in the families where cutting and fitting, as well for males as females, was in requisition. Another trade also grew up in the cities ; it was the dealing in second-hand clothing, mostly by Jews. These industrious persons bought up all the old clothing that could be had, cleaned, repaired, and redressed them, and sold them to those who sought to econ- omize. The cleaning and repairing of these clothes occupied great numbers of poor peo- ple. The repairing soon grew into fabricat- ing very cheap cloths bought at auction, "half-burnt," " wet goods," etc., to sell them in connection with the old garments. Vis- itors from the country found that garments could be bought in this way to better advan- tage than even to have them made at home, and the boarding-round system began to wane. It was soon found in New York that the great crowd of visitors who passed rap- idly through the city, and had little time to wait for measures, or to be inconvenienced with tailors' delays and misfits, would become buyers of a better class of ready-made cloth- ing, and the manufacture began to spread by tailors keeping assortments. The visitors who thus bought at retail were disposed to extend orders for resale at home, and in 1834 and 1835 the wholesale manufacture commenced in New York. One of the first of these, a shrewd judge of cloth and a close reckoner, commenced with little capital, slept under his counter, and kept his personal ex- penses very small, devoting his whole time to the cheap purchase of cloth, and the most economical way of making it up. This trade grew rapidly to an expenditure of $80,000 per annum for labor, mostly to sewing girls, at ridiculously low prices. This work was done to a considerable extent by girls who, living with their parents, wished to increase their allowance for dress. It is obvious that where the purchase of goods, the cutting, and making are attended to by experienced men, on a large scale, the cost of the goods must be very much less than that at which in- dividuals could get them up, and the compe- tition of the clothiers guarantees that the profits shall not be exorbitant. There were many in the trade when the revulsion of 1837 ruined them. The trade was soon again re-established, and it has not since ceased to grow, not only in New York, but to spread into all the cities of the Union. The census of 1860 gave the clothing business as fol- lows : — Number 4,209 Capital $28,707,247 Cost of material $47,527,560 Males emploj^ed 42,749 Females employed 77,875 Cost of labor $21,065,722 Value produced $88,095,363 This production in amount ranks third of the occupations of the Union. Since then the increase has been very much greater, and the business is now so extensive, that the " purchases of the clothiers" are a regulating feature in the goods market. These pur- chases take place many months before the goods are sold. The cloths for winter goods are bought in the previous spring, in order to give time for the making up. In a large clothing establishment, the business proceeds with great method. The cloth, as soon as ii 310 ■WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES. comes in, is subjected to a rigid scrutiny, and blemished portions are removed. The piece is then taken to the superintendent, a statement of the number of yards, the cost, and of whom purchased, is then entered in a book kept for the purpose. There is also entered the number and description of the goods to be made, how they are to be trim- med, the name of the cutter, the price of making, etc. The cloth is then transferred to the cutter, with directions as to kind of garment, style of cut, sizes, etc. The gar- ments being cut, are passed to the trimmer, who supplies buttons, thread, lining, etc. The goods then come under the control of the foremen, of whom there are several, and these give them out to be made. The num- ber who do this part of the business is very large, and are mostly females. They take home pantaloons, vests, etc., and when not well known to the foreman, are required to leave a deposit in money for the return of the goods. This is necessary in large cities, since it happens that if there is no deposit, the person may be tempted to pawn or sell the goods; or, if she is honest, she may have a drunken husband, who will seize and pawn the goods. It often happens, however, that poor, deserving women have no money to deposit, and go hungry in face of work that they might do. There are, on the other hand, knavish dealers, who, taking advantage of the position of the depositor, require it, and when the goods are returned, declare the work ill done, and retain the deposit to pay for the alleged spoiling of the cloth. There are also great numbers of men em- ployed in doing the heavy work, and since the introduction of sewing machines, these have been largely used. Among the nu- merous immigrants into New York, are many German and other families, who take in sewing, and these nearly all have a sew- ing machine. This demand for the machines is supplied by the liberality of the compet- ing patentees. They deliver a machine upon the payment of a small sura, and allow the buyer to pay up three to five dollars a month until the purchase is completed. In this manner the supply of labor in the manufac- ture of clothing is greatly increased, but the pressure is harder upon those who have no machines. The women may, however, earn from $6 to $12 per week ; the former price on coarse work was as low as 25 to 3 7i cts. for common silk vests, and as much for panta- loons, of which two pair a day is a large pro- duction. For custom-made silk vests, $2 is paid. The finer coats are made by regular tailors, employed in fashionable city shops during the dull season, and these earn $14 to $20 per week. The supply of labor is not, however, confined to the city, but embraces a broad circle of country, to which goods are sent by rail and express to be made up. Many clothing concerns have agencies in the country towns. These keep vehicles to travel round to farmers' and other dwellings where good sewing is done in the winter, with his goods, and bring them back when done. This reverses the old system of board- ing round to cut out family goods, since the goods go round to get made up. The ener- gy with which the trade is driven, therefore, produces two competitions, one to get the work done, and the other to get the goods sold. The cutting is an " art " of itself, and re- quires a certain talent. It is, in fact, the most important part of the manufacturing, since the style and " set " of the goods de- pend upon it. The large New York clothing stores employ the best " talent " in this line. The majority of the goods made up in New York and Philadelphia, is for the south and west. The capital required is large, since the goods are to be purchased some four oi five months in advance of the season ; much cash is paid out in the manufacturing, and finally, sales made at six to eight months. This manufacture includes all styles of boys' clothing as well as men's. The house of Brooks Brothers sell $1,000,000 per annum, and pay out $200,000 for sewing. This is stated as one-twentieth part of the clothing business of New York. The clothing trade of Boston has also re- ceived a great development of late years, and by a combination of circumstances which have had their influence everywhere. In 1840 there were only two houses in the trade in Boston, and the aggregate sales were about $200,000. These had increased, in 1860, to eighty-one houses, with sales re- ported at $5,220,000. This amount is now (1 870) more than quadrupled. The supply of cloths, &c., is large in Boston — as well from the manufacturers direct, as through com- mission houses who advance on them to the manufacturers. The cutting is done in Bos- ton, but the sewing mostly in the farmers' families throughout New England, and about 60,000 females in such situations are em- ployed. The numerous railroads that trav- erse the country, make commodities cheap ; CLOTHING TRADE TOTAL MANUFACTURE. 311' and as sewing machines improve in the qual- ity of the work they do, and in the cheap- ness with which they can be furnished, hard- ly a house is without one, and all seek em- ployment for them. In 1857, when the financial pressure caused so many mills to stop, throwing hands out of employment, these sought sewing as a substitute ; and their savings enabled them to buy machines. The same event threw large quantities of goods upon the market, through the auction houses, and also through the hands of the commission houses, to whom the manufac- turers pledged them for money. Thus, there was a large supply of goods and labor at less than former rates; clothing could be furnished much cheaper, and this circum- stance was not advantageous to the old stocks. That circumstance, temporary in itself, gave an impulse to the clothing busi- ness, as bringing more within its scope. The national census returns of 1850 and 1860 gave some details of the manufacture of woollen in each state, at each of those periods. That of 1860 was the most full, and is as follows : — WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES OF THE UNITED STATES FOR I860. Capital invested. Maine $932,400 New "Tampshire . . .. 1,421,300 Vermont 1,746.800 Massachusetts 8,993,903 Rhode Island 3,168,500 Connecticut 2,491,000 New York 3,115,700 Pennsylvania 4,339,310 New Jersey . Delaware Maryland Ohio Indiana Michigan , Illinois Wisconsin Iowa Missouri Kentucky Virginia North Carolina. South Carolina.. Greorgia Alabama Texas Mississippi Louisiana Tennessee California Oregon 583,400 117,000 318,200 658,750 464,341 103,950 207,600 100,600 82,500 103,750 408,500 463,600 223,000 50,000 242,500 140,000 60,000 76,500 75,000 6,000 100,000 70,000 Pounds of wool used. 2,414,300 3,829,404 4,047,010 33,516,797 6,832,600 7,179,819 7,453,004 7,128,529 1,175,800 140,000 1,055,272 1,190,751 940,000 163,100 324,300 265,000 168,700 191,400 1,452,500 1,131,000 504,500 250,000 1,008.600 264,435 81,900 270,597 69,150 10,000 400,000 150,000 Value of all raw material. $1,003,366 1,612,578 1,662,650 12,520,675 4,070,224 4,043,124 3,424,614 4,427,138 548,578 75,807 267,355 476.833 352,362 69,010 . 110,'462 85,743 67,293 56,745 510,902 389,204 151,005 60,000 260,475 80,790 25,980 119,849 31,300 ,5,225 50,000 27,000 Number of hands employed, Male. Female. 539 846 895 7,659 2,593 2,308 2,504 3,738 532 76 248 543 436 77 128 74 96 53 350 381 113 37 167 95 36 202 40 8 40 27 488 672 1,178 5,310 1,636 1,459 1,716 2,350 303 38 133 185 97 49 34 31 24 17 87 113 140 55 216 103 7 33 20 2 20 3 "Value of entire products. $1,717,007 2,601,353 2,938,626 19,655,787 6,915,205 6,840,220 5,870.117 8,191,675 1,085,104 153,035 605,992 825,231 649,771 139,246 187,613 172,720 127,640 143,025 845,226 717,827 291,000 80,000 464,420 191,4T4 38,796 158,507 45,200 8,100 150,000 85,000 Yards of cloth manufactured. 2,509,100 5,782,641 3,975,882 34,899,348 19,343,660 14,301,043 7,951,679 23,405,469 1,754,575 427,200 1,153,857 1,078,266 '680,355 172,723 176,960 285.000 133,315 358,000 2,230,246 1,007,714 639.000 300,000 1,435,000 61.3,410 94,976 569,203 48,800 18,000 52,500 Total $30,862,654 83,608,468 $36,586,887 24,841 16,519 $61,005,257 124,897,862 There were produced in these 1,260 wool- len mills, the same year, in addition to the cloth specified above, 6,401,206 pounds of woollen yarn, 610,400 shawls, 296,874 pairs of blankets, 18,000 table covers, 155,000 yaids of felt (all made in New Jersey), and 600 coverlets {made in Ohio). The annual product in 1850 was valued at $43,542,288, and in 1840 at 820,696,699, so that the pro- duction was tripled in 20 years. In the re- turns from the state censuses of 1855 and 1857, the production of all classes of woollen goods increased considerably. Massachu- setts and New Hampshire showed the largest increase. The manufacture appears to con- fine itself mostly to the middle states ; cu- riously enough to those states which are most exposed to the competition of the im- ported goods. It appears, then, from the above, that the manufacture of woolens in the United States increased from $20,000,000 in 1840, to $62,- 005,217 in 1860, according to the national census. • The statistical accounts of the gen- eral progress are very meagre. The statistics of woolen goods manufactured in 1865, 812 WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES. in the states of New York and (1855) Massa- chusetts, were given as follows : — MASSACHUSETTS. Broadcloth yards 759,62*7 Cassimeres " 6.444 585 " 6.736,082 Satinets Jeans. 1.948.609 Flannels and blankets " 10,279,227 Tarn lbs. 689,957 Carpets yds. 1,988,460 Wool used lbs. 21,667,272 NEW YORK. Cloth yds. 7,174,973 Yarn lbs. 503,389 Shawls EO. 380.000 Blankets prs. 191,438 Knit "oods pieces 812,250 Shoddy lbs. 277,550 Carpets yds. 986,059 Wool used lbs. 15,870,378 The statistics of 1860 show that there has been an increase of nearly 12,000,000 lbs. of the wool used since 1 857 in Massachusetts, and a considerable increase in the quantity of goods produced. In New York, the quan- tity of wool used was but little greater in 1865 than in 3 855. There was more used for cloths, but not nearly as much for shawls and delaines. The increase was about 500,- 000 lbs. The following figures, from a well- informed source, show the number of facto- ries, sets of machines, and quantity of wool required to feed them, in New England and New York, in 1860: — Factories. Sets. "Wool required. Maine 32 91 lbs. 2,065,000 New Hampshire. 56 228 5,670,000 Yennont 56 122 2,375,000 Massachusetts .. 154 999 31,017,000 Connecticut 93 410 12,155,000 Rhode Island .. . 56 225 5,625,000 New York 468 10,590,000 lbs. 69,497,000 The production of cloths labors under dis- advantage from the sharp competition which the English, Belgians, and French have kept up to obtain the American market. Up to 1840, 19-20ths of the cloths and cassimeres imported into the United States were of English manufacture. At that date they lost ground, but have since recovered. The importations have been as follows : — IMPORTS OF CLOTHS AND CAS8IMERK8 INTO THE UNITED STATES. Germany. Beljjium. Frunce. England. Total. 1840 16,012 93,135 89,767 4,490,830 $1,690,344 1851 1.411,28-2 478.532 1,988,181 3,785,070 7,463,065 1857 2,574,871 909,331 1,659.470 5,711,933 10,H55.605 1868 .. .. .. .. 7,139,605 The tariff of 1841 and 1842 approached, by the biennial reductions, the 20 per cent. horizontal rate contemplated by the com- promise tariff, for the last and subsequent years of its operation : that is to say, cloth paid 50 per cent, in 1822, 38 per cent, in 1840 and 1841, and 29 per cent, in 1842 to June 30. By the tariff of 1842 it paid 40 per cent., and by the present tariff 30 per cent. It may be observed, that with the advance of duty from 29 per cent, under the last year of compromise, to 40 per cent, in 1844, the import of cloths in the aggre- gate increased, but this increase came from the continent, and the maximum importation was in 1845. In the year 1848 the quantities received from France, stimulated by the ex- port bounty of the revolutionary government, increased 50 per cent., and the same influ- ence caused cloths to come from Germany in greater quantities. The Belgians and Germans were here in great numbers, at the Crystal Palace exhibition, seeking to intro- duce their wares, and with more or less suc- cess. Tlie result is, that the aggregate value of foreign cloths consumed in the United States did not increase, although the popu- lation increased at least 5,000,000 of people. The superior dye and finish of the German and French cloths have been the main reasons for their supplanting the English in our markets. The English manufacturers have now, by outlay of capital and increased ex- ertions, obtained more or less success in re- covering their ground; and against this sharp competition of France, Germany, and England, our manufacturers have hitherto fully maintained their ground, as appears from the fact, that while the increase of population and the wealth of that population has been very large within ten years, and the market for foreign goods has been extend- ed, yet, on the other hand, most of the in- creased consumption of the country, in the double ratio of greater number and enhanced means, has been supplied from our own pro- duction under shield of a 30 per cent. duty. The importation of shawls was very much increased in the same period of time, under similar conditions in reference to the suc- cessful competition of Europe against Eng- land. But the manufacture of these articles in this country has also immensely increased in the same time. The attention of farmers in the last two years has been powerfully directed to this great staple, and the degree of prosperity which it manifests is well cal- culated to extend their enterprise not only to the number of sheep, but to the quality — - CLOTHING TRADE TOTAL MANUFACTURE. 313 in respect not merely of breeds, but in keep- ing clean and packing. The fact has been developed by the most elaborate scientific researches, that the climate and soil of the United States are better adapted to the growth of fine, long stapled wools, suitable for the cloth manufacturer, than any other maimfac- turing country, and the article produced ex- ceeds the Australian wool. Under the ap- pliances of increased capital, and the stimulus which the competition of England with the continent may impart to the quality of the fabric, the United States will probably assume the superiority ; but our manufacturers should not neglect the necessary exertion to procure as fine a finish and as durable a dye for their cloths as those of the continent exhibit. The United States wools are rapidly gaining a character which will bring the foreign manufacturers into such competition for their purchase as will permanently sustain their price. The supply of wool in the United States has never been equal to the demand. In 1840 and 1850 the census gave the quan- tities raised in the country. If to these we add the quantities imported, we approximate the quantity used as follows : — 1840. 1850. 1868. Native. . .lbs. 35,802,114 52,516,969 102,000,000 Imported. 15,006,410 18,669,'794 24,681,217 Total.. lbs. 50,808,524 71,186,763 126,681,217 These wools, imported into the United States, are mostly of the coarser descrip- tions used for carpets, etc., and the average value is about 10 to 11 cts. These are qualities which do not compete with the fine wools of American growth ; but the growth of manufactures was found to be impeded by the want of greater supply. In consequence. Congress, in 1857, made all wools costing less than 20 cents at the place of growth, free of duty. These had paid 30 per cent., ad valorem, previously. This law had not much effect in increasing the supply, for the reason that the supply is everywhere short. There were quantities of South American wool imported of a fine quality, but so filled with the burr peculiar to that country, as to make them nearly useless. Many machines were invented to remove these burrs, but with partial success. One was of the form of a number of circular saws, 8 to 10 inches in diameter, set close together upon a shaft, which revolved with much velocity. The wool was fed to this cylinder, through two rollers. The saw teeth seized the wool, which, passing between the saws, left the burr on the surface, whence it was removed by the motion of the cylinder against a sta- tionary knife placed longitudinally across it. The general impulse given to manufactures at home and abroad, has caused the demand to outrun the supply of wool. This was the more the case that manufactures spread in those countries that formerly were most de- pended upon for raw wools. The supply of England has been kept up by the extended exports of Australia and the Cape of Good Hope. Hence, the lower duty did not im- prove the supply in the United States, and the home supply has to some extent been diminished by the operation of railroads and the growth of large cities. These latter have raised the demand for mutton and lamb, while the easy transportation afforded by rail has induced the farmers to send the animals to market instead of the wool, which was formerly alone practicable. The price of wool accordingly rose, and the manufacturers naturally sought to reduce the cost of the raw material by hunting up a substitute. This is usually found in substituting one of these four chief materials of human clothing ' — cotton, silk, wool, and flax. The one of these that is relatively dearest is mixed with larger proportions of the others. Hence, the value of the whole becomes in some degree equalized. Out of these circumstances has grown one of the most curious manufactures that have sprung up of late years. This is the shoddy manufacture. It has recently been imported from England ; and there are now in New York state six factories — inWatervliet, New- burg, Troy, and Marlborough. These turn out about 100,000 lbs. of shoddy per annum. But what is shoddy ? In the somewhat hilly district of York- shire, between Iluddersfield and Leeds, stand on two prominences the pretty little towns of Dewsbury and Batley Car. The stranger, on alighting from the railway car, is struck with the unusually large warehouses, built of stone, by the railway company. For such small stations, these are mysterious erections. But if he enter the principal warehouse, he will probably find piled up hundreds of bales, containing the cast-off garments of Great Britain and the continent of Europe. Here, in fact, from all parts of the world, are brought the tattered remains of the clothes, some of which have been worn by royalty in 314 WOOLLEN MANUFACTURBS. the various courts of Europe, as well as by the peers and peasants. The rich broadcloth of the English nobles here commingles with the Hvery of their servants and the worsted blouses of the French republicans; while American undershirts, pantaloons, and all other worsted or woollen goods, may there be found, all reduced to one common level, and known by one common appellation of « rags." The walls of the town are placarded with papers announcing public auctions of" Scotch shoddies," "mungoes," "rags," and such like articles of merchandise, and every few days the goods department of the railway is besieged by sturdy-looking Yorkshiremen, who are examining, with great attention, the various bales, some of which are assorted into "whites," "blue stockings," "black stockings," "carpets," "shawls," "stuffs," "shirtings," " linseys," "black cloth," etc. A jovial-looking man, of doubtful temperance principles, at last steps forward and puts the goods up to auction. The prices which these worn-out articles fetch are surprising to the uninitiated. Old stockings will realize from $35 to $50 a ton ; while white flannels will sometimes sell for as much as $100 a ton, and even more. The "hards," or black cloth, when clipped free from all seams and threads, are worth from $100 to $150 a ton. There are common mixed sorts of coarse fabric which can be bought as low as from $15 to $25 a ton; while the "rubbish," consisting of seams, linseys, and indescrib- ables, are purchased by the chemists for the manufacture of potash crystals for from $10 to $15 a ton. It will be seen that assorting these old woollens is equally important with the assort- ing of the different qualities of new wool ; and there is the additional consideration of colors to render assorting still more neces- sary. It is surprising, however, with what rapidity all this is accomplished. There are some houses where old woollen rags are divided into upward of twenty different sorts, ready for the manufacturer. The principal varieties are flannels, of which there are " English whites," "Welsh whites," "Irish whites," and " drabs." Each of these com- mand a different price in the market: the English and Welsh being much whiter than the Irish, and of finer texture, are worth nearly double the price of the Irish. The stockings are the next in value to the flan- nels, on account of the strength and elas- ticity of the wool. The peculiar stitch or bend of the worsted in stocking manufac- ture, and the hot water and washing to which they arc submitted during their stocking existence, have the effect of producing a per- manent elasticity which no after process destroys, and no new wool can be found to possess. Hence, old stockings are always in great demand, and realize, for good clean colored sorts, as much as $80 a ton in busy seasons. The white worsted stockings are the most valuable of the " softs," and, when supplied in sufficient quantity, will sell for as much as $140 a ton. Carpets, and other col- ored sorts, are generally, owing to their rapid accumulation, to be had at very low prices. " Shoddy," so well understood in York- shire, is the general term for the wool pro- duced by the grinding, or, more technically, the " pulling" up of all the soft woollens ; and all woollens are soft, except the super- fine cloths. The usual method of convert- ing woollens into shoddy, is to first carefully assort them, so as to see that not a particle of cotton remains on thena, and then to pass them through a rag machine. This has a cylinder 3 ft. in diameter and 20 inches long, with steel teeth half an inch apart from each other, and standing out from the cylinder, when new, one inch. This cylinder revolves five hundred times in a minute, and the rags are drawn gradually close to its surface by two fluted iron rollers, the upper one of which is packed with thin stuff" or skirting, so as to press the rags the closer to the action of the teeth. The cylinder runs up- ward past these rollers, and any pieces of rag which are not completely torn into wool, are, by their natural gravity, thrown back upon the rags which are slowly creepmg into the machine. The rollers are fed by means of a creeper, or slowly moving, end- less cloth, on which a man, and in some instances a woman, lays the rags in proper quantities. One of these machines is com- monly driven by a seven-inch band, and re- quires at least five horse power. Half a ton of rags can be pulled in ten hours by one of these machines. The dust produced sub- jects the workpeople on first commencing the occupation, to what is there called the "rag fever." But after a time the imme- diate effects are warded off, and although it no doubt shortens life, the remuneration being considerable — in England, 2 s. for every 240 lbs. of rags pulled — there is never any difliculty in obtaining workpeople. CLOTHING TRADE TOTAL MANUFACTURE. 315 The "mungo" is the wool produced by subjecting the hards, or superfine cloths, to a similar operation as that above described. The machine, however, for the mungo trade, is made with a greater number of teeth, several thousand more in the same sized cylinder, and the cylinder runs about VOO revolutions in a minute. The rags, previous to being pulled in this machine, are passed through a machine called a " shaker." This is made of a coarsely-toothed cylinder, about 2^ ft. in diameter, which revolves about 300 times in a minute, in a coarse wire cylinder. This takes away a large portion of the dust, which is driven out at a large chimney by means of a fan. The mungo pulling is, therefore, a cleaner business than the shoddy making, and, as a general rule, is more prof- itable. The power required for a mungo machine is that of about seven horses. Both the better kinds of shoddy and the mungo have for some years been saturated with oil ; but recently, milk has been applied to this purpose, and found to answer exceed- ingly well. The consequence is that milk in that locality, in England, has risen 100 per cent, in price ; and even in that district, where cows are kept in large numbers, it was feared there would be a great scarcity of milk for the supply of the towns. When well saturated with oil or milk, the shoddy or the mungo is sold to the woollen manufacturer. There are scores of men who attend the Huddersfield market every Tues- day to dispose of their mungo. It is as much an article of marketable value there, as cloth is here. It is not unusual for good mungo to realize as much as eight English pence per pound, while the shoddy varies in price from one penny to sixpence per pound, according to quality. The common kinds of shoddy require, of course, to be subjected to the scouring pro- cess, for which large wooden heaters, or *' stocks," are employed. The dung of hogs is largely employed in this purifying pro- cess, as well as human urine, which is exten- sively used in the blanket manufacture of Yorkshire. The white shoddy is capable of being used either for light-colored goods or for the common kinds of blankets, while the dark-colored shoddy is worked into all kinds of coarse cloths, carpets, etc., which are dyed any dark color, so as to hide the vari- ous colors of the old fabrics. Tt is mixed in with new wool in such proportion as its quality will permit, without deteriorating the sale of the material. The mungo is used in nearly all the York- shire superfine cloths, and in some very ex- tensively. It produces a cloth somewhat inferior, of course, to the West of England goods in durability, but, for finish and ap- pearance, when first made up, the inferiority would only be perceived by a good judge of cloth. This substance is largely intro- duced into all felted fabrics. Blankets, car- pets, druggets, table-covers, and Petersham coats, are sometimes entirely made from it, and the trade is rapidly extending. The effect of shoddy in the cloth of an overcoat, in the wear, is to rub out of the cloth and accumulate between it and the lining. We have seen a gentleman take a handful of this short wool from the corners of his coat. The grounds on which this shoddy and mungo business can be justified are the cheapening of cloth, and the turning to a useful purpose what would be otherwise almost useless. The business in Yorkshire is dignified by the title of the " Dewsbury trade ;" and to it Dewsbury certainly owes its wealth, and we might almost say its ex- istence. In twenty years it has grown from a village to a town of some 30,000 in- habitants, and some immense fortunes have been made by this extraordinary trans- formation of old garments into new. Considerable quantities of white shoddy were sent from England and Scotland to this country, and finally a machinist sent several of his rag machines, and several factories were successively started. The sale of the product is now largely conducted in Cedar street. New York. The shoddy trade is somewhat fluctu- ating, being affected very much by the state of the wool market. So great is the com- petition in the markets, that as soon as r rise takes place in the price of new wool, the small manufacturers, instead of raising their prices, commonly regulate their expenditure by using a larger proportion of the old material, and they are thus enabled' to com- pete, in prices at least, with the larger manu- facturers, who can lay in a large stock of new wool when the prices are low. LEATHER. CHAPTER I. TANNING— BOOTS AND SHOES. On the formation of the federal govern- ment, much solicitude was apparent in rela- tion to the growth of the more important branches of manufactures. That the im- perial government had so persistently pre- vented the establishment of any considerable branches, was a great drawback, because it had prevented the development of the neces- sary experience and skill in manufacture re- quired for large operations. The removal of those prohibitions by the act of inde- pendence, attracted attention to the forbid- den industries, and they began to flourish. The tanning and manufacture of leather, in all its branches, was one of the first that be- gan to thrive, and naturally, because the slaughter of animals for food furnished a greater or less supply of skins, that required to be wrought up into boots, shoes, harness, etc. Parliamentary committees, early in the eighteenth century, mentioned tanning in the colonies as a branch of individual in- dustry, which supplied most of the local demands for leather and shoe-making, as one of the leading handicrafts. In 1791, the Secretary of the Treasury, Mr. Hamilton, in his report on manufactures, mentions : " Tanneries are not only carried on as a regular business in numerous parts of the country, but they constitute, in some places, a valuable item of incidental family manufacture." He went on to mention, that encouragement had been asked of the gov- ernment in two ways, viz. : by prohibiting both the import of the leather and the ex- port of the bark. It was alleged that the leather trade had raised the price of bark from $3 to $ih per cord. He ascribed the rise, however, rather to the increase of tan- neries than to the export, of which, he said, there was no evidence. Glue was then a large item with the tanners, who used up the refuse portions of the skins in that way. From that time to the present, tanners have increased in all the states, in the proportio-n nearly of the growth of the population. The impprtation of boots and shoes was always insignificant, comprising high-priced articles from Paris mostly. Thus, the year 1822 was one of the largest import: there were then 14,979 pairs of shoes, mostly kid and morocco, imported, for $9,192 ; and 207 pairs of boots, for $792, or nearly $4 per pair. In 1858 the importation was only 39,826 pairs of leather boots and shoes, at a value of $87,101 ; and the export of do- mestic boots and shoes in this year was 609,- 988 pairs, or a value of $663,905 : showing a large excess of exports over imports. The manufacture of boots and shoes has, therefore, been in the double ratio of the number of people, and their ability to buy, in proportions as follows : — LEATHBB MANTTFAOTirEB OP THE XTNITBD STATES IN 186( Eatablishmenta. Capital. Eaw material. Male. Female. Labor. Boots and shoes Gloves Leather belting , Morocco dressers Patent leather Saddles and harness. . Tanners and curriers. 12,486 $23,35t,62t 126 46 136 12 3,695 5,040 594,825 588,000 2,331,250 1,039,000 6,616,034 35,655,310 $42,728,114 537,589 915,271 3,896,522 1,395,400 6,726,344 44,520,737 94,512 453 329 2,371 865 12,443 22,622 28,514 $30,938,080 330,419 134,952 924,308 317,460 4,333,041 6,933,740 976 25 331 337 57 Product. $91,889,298 1,176,796 1,481,750 6,291,075 2,101,250 14,604,328 67,306,452 Total 21,541 $70,182,106 $100,720,037 133,595 30,240 $43,912,000 $184,850,948 Thetotal value was thus raised to $184,-1 ners and curriers was $67,306,452. Of 850,948. The value produced by the tan- [this leather so produced, the harness-makers TANNING BOOTS AND SHOES. 3lY and shoe-makers used $49,454,588. The tanneries lie at the foundation of the whole. They use the skins and hides of animals slaughtered in the whole country, and re- quire, in addition, an average of some 5,000,- 000 of foreign hides,- imported mostly from Central and South America, and the British East Indies, to make good the demand. The census of 1840 gave the sides of sole leather tanned at 3,463,611, and of upper leather 3,781,868. The supply of hides in the country origin- ally was derived mostly, if not altogether, from the slaughter of animals for food. Tan- neries were started where bark, mostly hem- lock, was most easily accessible, and the tan- nery became the market for hides and skins for many miles around, as Avell for the farmers as butchers. In the neighborhood of the large cities, foreign hides became the main resource. Thus, in 1858, the value imported was $9,719,683, as follows: Bos- ton and Salem, $3,290,555; New York, $5,629,027; Philadelphia, $377,635; Bal- timore, $422,466. The importers of hides sell to the tanners for cash or short time, and then tanning takes place in localities best suited to the combination of the materials. Boston is the largest leather market in the states ; but there is not tanned in Massa- chusetts half the leather they use. They tan the upper leather ; but the sole leather is Inostly tanned in New York. The hides imported at Boston and Salem are sold to the New York dealers, by them supplied to the tanners, and then resold to the boot- makers of Massachusetts. One reason of this is, no doubt, that the newly opened counties of New York supply more and cheaper bark than can be had elsewhere. When the Erie railroad was opened through the southern tier of counties, tanneries rapidly increased along its line. The returns of the road for the first five years were as follows : — Hides sent west Leather sent east. 1846, lbs. 976,950 781,300 1847, 1,200,520 480,040 1848, 1,111,580 1,078,620 1849, 3,253,883 3,696,592 1850, 10,140,022 8,409,765 So rapid was the effect of having access to new hemlock forests. The number of hides that are produced each year in the country, although a very important item, the census has not furnished in any definite manner. That of 1 840 gave the number of sides tanned in 1839 at 3,463,611, which would account for 1,731,805 hides. The number of neat cattle in the country was then 14,971,586, and of horses and mules 4,335,669. The deaths among them would give about 400,000 hides, and the neat cattle would give 3,000,000 hides. The number of horses, cattle and other domestic animals in the United States, in 1869, is estimated by the Agricultural Department as follows : — Horses and mules 7,254,455 Cattle 21,432,099 Sheep 37,724,279 Swine 23,316,476 According to the census the number of cattle slaughtered in a given year is about 25 per cent, of the whole number. This would make the slaughtered cattle of 1868, according to the estimate, 5,333,275, and the horse hides (10 per cent.) would be 633,- 279. The number of skins dressed of native animals, which includes sheep and goat-skins, calf-skins, kid, horse, hog-skins, and also a very considerable number of deer, buftalo, seal, bear, wolf, and alligator skins, (though a portion of these might possibly come under the head of furs,) was not less than 18 millions. The sheep-skins dressed in 1850 alone numbered 6,000,000. But the num- ber of cattle in this country has been dimin- ishing for some years past, and the demand for hides for tanning has far exceeded our home supply. Our importation of hides and skins, mostly from Central and South America, in 1868, was valued at $9,961,999, and in 186& amounted to $14,204,761. As these hides and skins had to undergo the processes of tan- ning and dressing after their arrival here, they probably represented in 1869, a value of more than $30,000,000. The price of leather has nearly doubled since 1860, and while the importation is increasing in amount, the home product does not decline in price. The statistics of the tanneries in 1840, 1850 and 1860 are as follows : No. Capital. Sides tanned. Skins. Value of prod'ct, 1840,.. 8,229 15.650,929 3,643,611 3,781,868 $20,919,9J0 1850,.. 6,263 18,900,557 12,257,940 8,653,865 328,61,796 I860,.. 5,040 35,655,370 ^muterkr i ^^^'"^^'"^^^ 67,306,452 The skins of domestic animals, or " green hides," are rated of higher value than the foreign or salted hides ; yet these latter will give a great weight of leather, because of the water in the green hides, which, on the other hand, are more easily handled. The largest oxen make the best sole leather. The skins of the bull are thickest about the neck and 818 LEATHER. parts of the belly ; but the back is thinner, and are inferior in fineness of grain to oxen or cows. The best are made into the heavy leather, used for the best trunks, shoe-soles, machine-belts, harness, etc. The lighter qualities serve for uppers of common boots and shoes. Kips, or skins of young cattle, make the uppers of fine boots and shoes. Those hides of the best quality only are split or shaved for the thin enamelled leather used for ladies' shoes, and are made into "lace leather," or thongs for belts. In preparing the hides for tanning, the heavy ones are soaked for months in lime-water. The hair, at last, can be removed, with the epidermis, by the two-handed scraping-knife, rubbed over it as the hide is laid flat down on the bench prepared for this purpose. The fleshy substance on the other side is then scraped off*, and, like the head, cheeks, and other waste, used for making glue. In large establishments, machines are used for this scraping. The lime that remains in the pores of the hide must be removed by soak- ing in some solution, like chlorine, that will form a soluble compound with the lime. Sometimes hides are laid in piles, and allow- ed to begin to putrefy, great care being taken to stop it as soon as the hair starts. By the United States plan, the object is more effectively obtained, with less labor, and no injury to the leather. The hides are suspended in a cool vault, protected, like an ice-house, against the entrance of warm air, and furnished with a covered channel-way, that answers as a drain and as a conduit for cool damp air. Cool spring water is then conducted into the vault, to fall round its sides like spray. The hides are thus kept in a mist, at a temperature of 44 to 46 deg., and, in six to twelve days, are found freed from all superfluous matter. The cold vapor has been absorbed, and its action by melting has distended and removed the epidermis with the roots of the hair. As soon as this is effected, the hides are ready for tanning. This American plan, it will be observed, is far in advance of that of the old systems, still practise4 in Europe. Of the hides brought into New York in a year, the disposition was as follows : — Domestic hides, slaughtered 250,000 Imported 1,902,000 Stock, Jan. 1 375,000 Supply 2,527,000 Taken for sole leather 1,877,000 upper " 250,000 " patent " 100,000 " by western tanners . . . 100,000 " neighboring cities . . 150,000 2,477,000 Stock, Dec. 31 50,000 These figures show the relative disposition of the hides sold in New York. Leather, tanned, is generally divided into three kinds, namely : hides, kips, and skins. The stoutest leather employed for trunks and soles of boots and shoes, is made from butts or backs. Buff" leather was formerly made for defensive armor from the hide of the buffalo, but it is now furnished by the cow-hide, and is used chiefly for soldiers' belts. Bull-hide is thicker than cow-hide, while kip-skin, from young cattle, is lightei than the latter. The name kip is also giv« en to Calcutta, Brazil, and African hides. Calf-skin supplies the great demand for the upper part of boots and shoes ; sheep-skins form a thin, cheap leather ; lamb-skins are used for gloves ; goat and kid-skins form a light leather of fine quality ; deer or ante- lope are usually bi-dressed in oil ; horse-hide is prepared for harness work, etc., and this, with seal-skin, is used for making enamelled leather ; dog-skin makes a thin, tough leath- er, but most of the gloves sold as dog- skin are made of lamb-skin. Hog-skin makes a thin, porous leather, and is used for covering the seats of saddles ; ass and mule- skins are for shagreen leather, used mostly for scabbards. There is a large import trade in skins. The great demand for leather for the best gloves is supplied by lamb-skins from Italy, Spain, the south of France, and other parts, where, in conse- quence of the lamb being killed quite young, the skin is small, fine, and thin, and is used instead of kid ; but it is neither so strong nor so glossy. The skins of lambs that die soon after their birth, are sometimes dressed with the wool, and are used for lining gloves and shoes. The best 'kid-skins are from the south of France ; they are also imported from Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and Ire- land. It is said that as soon as the kid be- gins to feed on herbage, the skin suffers in fineness and delicacy, and is no longer suit- able for the best gloves. The best morocco leather is made from Swiss goat-skins; another kind is from Mogador and East In- dian goat-skins, which are often made into black morocco, known as "black Spanish TANNINQ BOOTS AND SHOES. 319 leather," from the circumstance of the first supplies having been obtained from Spain. The leather from the Cape sheep-skin is nearly equal to morocco. Hippopotamus hides are exported from South Africa, and when tanned with oak bark, they make an extremely thick and compact leather. In Canada, recently, leather has been made from the white whale which visits the St. Lawrence. In February, 1860, some speci- mens of this leather^ were shown at the American Institute. There are various sorts of excellent leather made from their skins. The vegetable substances used in tanning have of late years become almost as numer- ous as the varieties of hides and skins on which they are employed. The active vege- table principle, tannin, varies somewhat according to the source from which it is derived ; but it is always marked by an astringent taste, a bluish-black or dark green precipitate in aqueous solution by admixture with a solution of one of the salts of per- oxide of iron ; while, with a solution of gela- tine, it gives a dirty white or brown precipi- tate. During a long period the principal tanning material has been oak bark and hemlock bark. That which is stripped in the spring is the most esteemed, for it then contains a larger quantity of tannin than that stripped in autumn, and this more than the bark stripped in winter. The best bark is obtained in a warm spring, from coppice trees about twelve years of age. Oak bark con- tains from 4 to 22 per cent, of tannin, which is contained in the inner white layers next the alburnum, as in the case of other astrin- gent barks. The tannin of bark is probably not identical with that of galls, as it does not yield pyrogallic acid when subjected to destructive distillation ; from four to six pounds of oak bark are required for every pound of leather. After the stripping, the bark is stacked to dry ; should the season be rainy, a portion of the tannin may be washed out, and the bark be thus deterio- rated. When the tanned leather is taken in hand by the currier, it is softened by being soaked in water. It is next beaten by a mallet upon a hurdle, and then placed over a plank called a beam, which projects slant- ingly from the floor. The workman leans over this and against the leather, so as to keep it in its place, and with a broad knife shaves off all the irregularities from the flesh side. The knife is held firmly in both hands, and the operator continually exam- ines the skin, and moves it to bring all parts under the knife. After it is shaved, it is thrown into cold water, the flesh side laid next to a stone slab, and the other well rubbed with a tool called a stretching iron. This process forces out a whitish matter (bloom) gathered in the tan pit, and reduces inequalities. Many tools are employed, having the same object. The skin then un- dergoes "dubbing;" an ointment of cod oil boiled with the skins of sheep, is well rubbed in on both sides, and the leather hung up to dry. It is afterward rubbed with the graining board — an instrument shaped somewhat like a brush, but grooved, and made of hard wood. The leather is then ready for sale ; or, after shaving the flesh side with a very sharp knife, it is waxed. A color, composed of oil and lamp-black, is well rubbed in on the flesh side, with a hard brush, until the surface is thoroughly black ; upon this is applied a size and tallow with a stiff" brush, and when dry, it is rubbed with a broad, smooth lump of glass ; this is re- peated. This leather is called "waxed," or " black on the flesh," and is used for the uppers of men's boots and shoes. If curried on the other side it is called black on the grain, and is used for ladies' uppers. In preparing such leather, the waxing is per- formed as follows : a solution of sulphate of iron, called copperas water or iron liquor, is applied to the grain side of the wet skin, when the salt, uniting with the gallic acid of the tan, produces an ink dye ; stale urine is then applied to the skin, and when dry, the stuflSng is applied. The grain is raised, and when dry, the skin is whitened, bruised, and again grained ; after which, a mixture of oil and tallow is applied to the grain side, and it undergoes carefully the treat- ment with the pommel or graining-board again, and several other processes of rubbing, polishing, and dubbing, or oiling. These duly performed, with due regard to time and circumstances, complete the process. For many years it was found difficult to cause a bright varnish to adhere to leather without cracking, an effect which is now produced by means of boiled linseed oil mixed with vegetable black and Prussian blue. This composition, of the consistence of a thick paste, is rubbed upon the surface of the leather, and then dried at a temperature of from 150° to 170° Fahr. The process is repeated from three to seven times, and when quite dry, the varnish adheres very 320 LEATHER. firmly, and will bear considerable flexure and tension without cracking. By mixing colored pigments with the varnish, enamelled leather of various colors may be produced. The process of tanning differs considerably in the mode of treatment with the kind of skin and the result desired. A large num- ber of thin leathers which are intended to be dyed, are tanned in various ways. White leathers are not tanned, but tawed, or treated with alum, salt, and some other matters. Wash leather is dressed with oil, or sham- oyed ; but whatever may be the subsequent treatment, the preparatory steps somewhat resemble each other — whereby hair, wool, grease, and other matters, are removed, and the skin is reduced to the state of a gelatinous membrane called pelt ; the hair is removed from kid and goat-skin, by means of cream of lime ; the wool is generally removed by the feltmongers before the skin is passed to the tawers. Foreign lamb-skins, which are received with the wool on, are washed, scraped on the flesh side, and sweated in a close room, until, in consequence of the putrefactive fer- mentation, the wool can be easily removed. After this, fatty matters are got rid of by subjecting the skins to hydrostatic pressure ; they arc next worked at the beam and pared into shape, treated with lime, and next with dogs' or pigeons' dung, if the skins are to be tanned, and with bran and water if they are to be tawed, the object being, in either case, to get rid of the lime. During these opera- tions, the skins are worked a few times at the beam, and are finished by washing in clean water. Morocco leather is prepared by tanning goat-skins with sumach, and dyeing on the grain side. Inferior moroccos are prepared from sheep-skins similarly treated, for which purpose each skin of pelt is sewed up into a bag, the grain side outer- most, distended with air, and placed in a mordant of tin or alum. They are next placed in a warm cochineal bath for red, in- digo for blue, orchil for purple, and are worked by hand until the dye has properly struck. For certain colors the tanning pre- cedes the dyeing. The tanning or sumach- ing is carried on in a large tub, containing a weak solution of sumach in warm water; another and stronger solution is contained in an adjoining vessel, a portion of which, together with some sumach leaves, is poured into the bag; some of the weak solution is then added, the bag is distended with air, and the skin thrown into the vat. In this way about 50 skins are treated, and are kept in motion a few hours in the sumach tub, by means of paddles worked by hand, or by machinery. The skins are then taken out and heaped upon a shelf at the side of the tub, the pressure thus produced causing ' the liquor to escape slowly through the pores of the skin, the bags being shifted about from time to time. The bags are next passed into a second vat, containing a stronger solution, where they remain for nine hours. The bags are now opened and washed ; fine red skins being finished in a bath of saffron. All the skins are next struck on a sloping board until they are smooth and flat, and in order to improve their ap- pearance in the currying, a little linseed oil may be rubbed on the grain side ; they are then hung up in a loft to dry, when they be- come horny and are in the crust, as it is called ; they next pass through much labor- ious friction with the pommel, and with a glass ball ; while the peculiar ribbed ap- pearance of morocco is given by means of a ball of box-wood, on which is a number of narrow ridges. Sheep-skin morocco is pre- pared from split skins; the skin-splitting machine resembles in principle that hereafter described, only as the membrane is thinner^ certain variations are required. Instead of stretching the skin on a drum, it is passed between two rollers, the lower one of gum- metal, and solid, and the upper made of gum rings; while between the two rollers, and nearly in contact, is the edge of the sharp knife, which is moved by a crank, as hereafter mentioned. When a skin is introduced be- tween the two rollers, it is dragged through against the knife edge and divided, the solid lower roller supporting the membrane, while the upper one, being capable of moving through a small space by means of its rings, adjusts itself to inequalities in the mem- brane ; where this is thin the rings become depressed, and when it is thick they rise up, so that no part escapes the action of the knife. The divided skins are not sewed up into bags, as, from their thinness, they can be sumached quickly. In preparing white leather by " tawing," the pelt is made as pure as possible ; the best kind of leather being prepared from kid- skins, while sheep or lamb-skins make the inferior kinds. They are first fed with alum or salt in a drum or tumbler made like a huge churn ; about three pounds of alum TANNING BOOTS AND SHOES. 321 and four pounds of salt being used to 120 skins of average size. The alumina of the alum forms some definite compound with the gelatine of the skins, while the salt serves to whiten them. When taken out, the skins are washed in water, then allowed to ferment in bran and water to remove the surplus alum and salt, and to reduce the thickness. They are next dried in a loft, and become tough and brittle, but they are made soft and glossy by means of a dressing of twenty pounds of wheat flour and the yolks of eight dozen eggs. By rotating the skins in drums for some time the dressing is absorbed, and scarcely any thing but water remains. This dressing is usually repeated, and the skins hung up to dry. The beautiful softness and elasticity of leather is now given by manip- ulation. The skins are first dipped in clean water, worked upon a board, and staked upon a stretcher or softening iron, consisting of a rounded iron plate fixed to the top of an upright beam, by which the skins are ex- tended and smoothed ; they are then finished by being passed over a hot iron. The tanning of leather, more than almost any other manufacture, is a chemical process, the success of which depends almost wholly upon the skill and judgment with which its complicated manipulations are conducted. To attain the requisite skill in the laboratory of the chemist is evidently impossible ; it can only be acquired in the tanning itself, by long and careful attention and observa- tion; and perhaps there is no description of manufacture where so much depends upon practical knowledge, and so little upon mere theory, as in the tanning of leather. The tanning of leather consists in effecting a combination between the gelatine, which is the main constituent of raw hides, and tan- nin, a peculiar substance, found in the bark of several species of trees — the oak and hemlock chiefly. The processes employed are so various, and the modifications occa- sioned by temperature, strength of the liquor, and quality and condition of the hides, are so numerous and so different, that hardly any branch of business requires for its successful conduct a greater degree of judgment and experience, and in few arts have there been effected greater improve- ments. Within twenty years the gain of weight in converting hides into leather has increased nearly fifty per cent. ; that is, from a quarter to a third more leather can now be obtained from a given 20 quantity of hides than in the old-fashioned way. The great improvement in weight seems to have been gained by the judicious use of strong liquors, or " ooze," obtained from finely-ground bark, and by skilful tanning. In order to produce heavy weights, the hides should not be reduced too low in the beam- house, and should be tanned quickly with good strong liquors, particularly in the latter stage of the operation. To green hides, par- ticularly, nothing can be more injurious than to suffer them to remain too long in weak " ooze." They become too much reduced, grow soft, flat, and flabby, lose a portion of their gelatine, and refuse to "plump up." On the other hand, however, the eff"ects of an early application of " ooze," that' is too strong and too warm, to green hides, is very injurious. It contracts the surface fibres of the skin, tanning at once the external layers, so " dead," as it is termed, as to shut up the pores, and prevent the tanning from penetrating the interior. This renders the leather harsh and brittle. In softening hides, and preparing them for the process of tanning, a great deal also depends upon the judgment of the person superintending the operation, inasmuch as the diversities in the qualities and charac- teristics of hides render it impossible to sub- ject them to any thing more than a general mode of treatment. In "sweating," the character of the hides and the temperature are essential, but ever-varying considerations. As a general rule, however, the milder the process of preparing the hides for the bark, the better. Unnecessarily severe or pro- longed treatment is inevitably attended with a loss of gelatine, and a consequent loss of weight , and strength in the leather. Too high a temperature is particularly to be avoided. In almost every lot of hides, particularly the Orinocos, however, there are generally some that prove very intractable, resisting, all the ordinary modes of softening. For such, a solution of ashes, potash, or even common salt, will be found to be bene- ficial. As we have said, no precise rule can be given as to the length of time required for the preliminary process of soaking and " sweating" — so much depending upon the qualities of the hides, and the tempera- ture at which these pperations are con- ducted. 322 LEATHER. The following table, however, may be I to a definite idea of the practice in a large found useful in conveying an approximation I tannery : — 40*' Days. Temperatures. Buenos Ayres hides 10 to 12 Carthagenaand Laguayra... 8 12 SOAKING. 50° 60° Days. Days. 8 to 12 6 to 8 1 9 5 7 70° Days. 3 to 6 2 5 40° Days. 15 to 20 15 20 8WEATIKO. 50° Days. 12 to 16 10 15 60° Days. i to 12 ; 8 70° Days. 2 to 3 2 3 Salted hides do not require more than about two-thirds the time to soak, but about the same time to sweat. In sweating, the temperature rises as the hides sweat, so that the operation is seldom performed un- der 50°. It is particularly recommended that, for the tougher hides, the heat should never be greater than 60° or 65°. After the hides are prepared for tanning, the next process is what is commonly called " handling," which should be performed two or three times a day in a weak ooze, until the grain is colored, new liquor being prefer- able to old. They are then, after a fort- night, laid away in bark, and changed once in two to four weeks until tanned. Much care and judgment is requisite in proportion- ing the continually increasing strength of the liquors to the requirements of the leather in the different stages of this process. The liquors should also be kept as cool as pos- sible, within certain limits ; but ought never to exceed a temperature of eighty degrees. In fact, a much lower temperature is the maximum point, if the liquor is very strong — too high a heat, with the liquor too strongly charged with the tanning principle, being invariably injurious to the life and color of the leather. From this, it would seem that time is an essential element in the process of tanning, and that we cannot make up for the want of it by increasing the strength of the liquor, or raising the tem- perature at which the process is conducted, any more than we can fatten an ox or a horse by giving him more than he can eat. It may be questioned whether any patented schemes for the more rapid conversion of hides into leather, will be found, on the whole, to have any practical utility. We have mentioned the injurious effects resulting from too strong a solution of the active principle of the bark; on the other hand, the use of too weak solutions is to be avoided. Hides that are treated with liquor below the proper strength, become much relaxed in their texture, and lose a portion of their gelatine. The leather neces- sarily loses in weight and compactness, and is much more porous and pervious to water. The warmer these weak solutions are ap- plied, the greater is this loss of gelatine. To ascertain whether a portion of weak liquor contains any gelatine in solution, it is only necessary to strain a little of it into a glass, and then add a small quantity of a stronger liquor. The excess of tannin in the strong solution, seizing upon the dissolved gelatine in the weak liquor, will combine with it, and be precipitated in flakes of a dark, curdled appearance, to the bottom. In the best tanneries, the greatest strength of liquor used for handling, as indicated by Pike's ba- rometer, is 16°. Of that employed in laying away, the greatest strength varies from SC^ to 45°. After the leather has been thoroughly tanned and rinsed, it will tend very much to improve its color and pliability to stack it up in piles, and allow it to sweat until it becomes a little slippery from a kind of mucus that collects upon the surface. A little oil added at this stage of the process, or just before rolling, is found to be very useful. Great caution is necessary in the admis- sion of air in drying, when first hung up to dry. No more air than is sufficient to keep the sides from moulding should be allowed. Too much air, or, in other words, if dried too rapidly in a current of air, will injure the color, giving a darker hue, and rendering the leather harsh and brittle. To insure that the thick parts, or butts, shall roll smooth and even with the rest of the piece, it is necessary that the leather should be partially dried before wetting down for rolling, and that, when wet down, it should lie long enough for every side to become equally damp throughout. In the tanning records of 200,000 sides, an average of the whole time w^as five months and twenty-seven days. The average weight of the leather was seventeen pounds per side. This, according to the best authorities we have at hand, is considerably below the time employed in England. There, it is no un- common thing for eight and ten months to be employed in tanning a stock of leather, TANNING BOOTS AND SHOES. 323 and some of the heaviest leather, it is said, takes even fourteen and fifteen months. A new process of tanning leather has been recently introduced, as follows : — Sole leather hides for sweat stock are pre- pared for the tan liquors in the usual man- ner. Limed stock for upper and sole leather, for either hemlock or oak tanning, is limed and washed, and bated by the paddle-wheel handlers ; after being properly prepared for the tan liquors, it is then handled in a sec- tion of vats, with the liquors communicating in the manner long known as press-leaches, except the order of running the liquors is from near the top of one vat to the bottom of the next, and so on through the whole section, thus "pressing" the weak liquor ahead on to the greener stock, giving a per- fect gradation of strength of liquor on each pack, stronger or weaker according to the length of time it has been in ; each vat is fitted with a paddle-wheel handler, patented June 19th, 1847, and Dec. 24th, 1850, which is used for stirring the stock in the liquors, dispensing with the necessity of handling by hand entirely ; in this section stock should be kept about two weeks, then taken out and hung over sticks with head and butt down in layaways, patented August 10th, 1858, and not again moved or seen till well tanned ; the layaways are all in one section with the communicating trunks, in the same manner as the handlers ; when a pack is taken out tanned, a pack from the handlers is put into its place, and the weakest liquor in the section is allowed to fill the vat ; here every part of every side is in contact with the liquor at all times, and the liquors on every pack are becoming stronger every day till tanned ; the liquors are kept in motion by small paddle-wheels, which operate on the surface of the liquor over the suspended sides, causing the liquors to pass with a gentle cur- rent among the sides, bearing them up, so that they do not rest heavy on the sticks. Two men's labor is sufficient for all the yard work for a tannery working in and out 150 sides per day, including washing the tanned stock and taking it to the loft. The results of tanning 144,000 hides were Jis follows : — Hides 144,000 3,229,155 22.22 $421,810 Leather, sides, 287,275 5,316,789 18.51 704,044 This gives a considerable increase in the weight of the hides, and the increase in the value of the article is much greater. That covers, of course, commission, labor, interest, profits, etc. The great development given to general business in the last twenty years has caused an almost continuous rise in the value of leather and hides. The latter, on being purchased and put in the vats, would thus acquire value from the general rise in the market, in addition to the regular value added by the art of the tanners. There was gradually felt a growing scarcity of hides, and the quantities imported by no means kept pace with the rising value. The quantities and values of hides imported for the few last years were as follows : — 1850. - 1855. 1857. 1858. 1869. No. hides, 2,572,884 2,434,554 2,651,846 2,493,656 3,318,729 Value, $5,964,838 4,823,119 7,620,272 8,048,825 14,204,767 This shows that for 746,000 more hides there were paid in 1869, $8,240,000 more than in 1850, an advance of about 100 per ct. in the value of hides, while the labor and tanning material have advanced still more. Such a fact indicates the growing cost of the raw material for boots and shoes, and also indicates the growing value of the hides of animals throughout the country. Leather being so costly a substance, great eff*orts are made to introduce economies in its manufacture and use .in every direction. One plan for getting the most possible sur- face out of a given weight, is to split the thick hides into two thinner sheets. This process, formerly difficult, has of late under- gone many improvements. When the hide is sufficiently tanned, it is split sometimes into five thicknesses, from a single one. This is done by various machines, in one of which the knife is 72 inches long, or as long as a hide is wide. A late improvement in Bos- ton makes the knife 80 inches long, and economises 25 per cent, in the stock that before was shaved away. The flesh side of the sheet, with the shanks, are used by the trunk-makers to cover wooden trunks, and blackened on the trunks. Other sheets are subjected to a process called "buffing," which consists in shaving oflf about half the grain, in order to obtain a softer surface to receive an artificial grain. They are then returned to the tan-yard, and, after being scoured, are retanned in warm liquors. They are then sent to the currier to be prepared for japanning. A new patent has been issued for splitting leather with a circular knife, which is of thin metal, made like a disc, convex side up. This revolves hori- 324 LEATHER. zontally, with its sharp edge just abo¥e a table, over which the leather is stretched, and held down firmly to it by springs. Un- der the table is a roller, which, by revolving, draws the leather forward against the edge of the revolving knife. The upper side of the leather splits off in curls above the knife, which may be nicely adjusted to make the leather of any thickness. The general manufacture of boots and shoes had undergone few changes other than those produced by changing fashions and the regular improvements of business, until the introduction of sewing and pegging machines, which have given a great impulse to the production by affecting prices and disturbing localities. The Massachusetts shoe-makers, by their industry, early obtain- ed an ascendancy in the manufacture, and it is one that is easily adopted m an indus- trious community. The towns in the neigh- borhood of Boston attracted masons, car- penters, and other workmen, in the winter season, when their own professions were dull, to^ pursue shoe-making, which was always a resource. The town of Lynn was the most famous; and the facility with which shoes were turned out, led to the legend, that the materials, being stuck to the wall by an awl, were combined in the proper manner by a blow of the lapstone being skilfully aimed at them. There were others who asserted that both boots and shoes grew there sponta- neously. Whatever may be the fact, an affluence of these useful articles was always observable there, and thirty years since the sales were mostly in the hands of the New York merchants, to whom most of the New England manufacturers consigned or sold their wares. Gradually this changed. The number of skilled worlmien that arrived from abroad became so great, as to fill most of the departments into which the boot trade became divided, as crimping, bottoming, heeling, and finishing; and the pay of the workpeople, by the piece, or the pair, enables each to control his own time, working when they please. These sometimes club their work, and appoint an agent to sell ; others, by economy, save their pay, and employ a few men, whose work they direct. These, in the cities, are called ^^ garret bosses.''^ When they succeed in establishing a trade, they conduct the manufactory by a foreman, and open an office in the city, where they Bell their wares, and purchase the stock for manufacture. The materials are in this manner better purchased ; and as the seller is himself the manufacturer, coming in con- tact with buyers from all sections, he be- comes conversant with the styles adapted to all localities, and the manufactory is by far the better conducted for it. The advan- tages of this system have made Boston, of late years, the grand centre of such operators, and have drawn thither the jobbers from New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Cincin- nati, St. Louis, etc., until Boston has become the largest shoe market in the world. The sales of boots and shoes there are $62,000,- 000 per annum. The number of pairs made in Massachusetts in the year 1860 was as follows : — Boots ll.STS.SSS Shoes 32,678,167 Boots and shoes 51,250 Total pairs 44,308,302 Total value $37,468,355 This was a number sufficient for one and a half pairs for each person, great and small, in the United States ; and the number em- ployed in making them was 43,907 males, and 32,652 females : together, 76,559. In 1845, the value, manufactured in Massachu- setts, was $14,799,140 — an increase of $22,- 669,215 in the fifteen years; showing the force of concentration of the trade. The number of cases exported from Bos- ton, in 1859, was as follows : — Total year. Baltimore 62,461 Charlestoa 17,177 Louisville 21,119 Lexington 2, 1 58 Memphis 3,338 Mobile 2,940 Nashville 18,781 Paducah 1,146 Kichmond 1,452 Savannah, Ga 2,526 St. Louis 55,774 New Orleans 37,686 Philadelphia 56,119 New York 182,207 All others 253,107 . Total cases 717,991 This gives a value of over $30,000,000. The class of shoes sent from Boston is not of so fine a character as those which are turned out in Philadelphia. The largest quantity of morocco is made there ; and the supply of skins and leather is ample, and of the best quality. The workmen have a reputation for skill, and are paid by the piece. -=^^^m , OVER THE BEAM. Shaving the fleshy matter from the hide. HIDE-SPLITTING MACHINE UNHAIRING THE HIDE PEGGING BOOTS BY HAND. From 250 to 500 pairs per day are done by the machines, according to the kind of machine, and whether run by hand or power. Improvement fifteen or twenty to one. TANNING BOOTS AND SHOES. 325 The work is divided into separate branches. For men's dress boots, the " fitter" is paid V5 cts. ; for crimping, 10 cts. ; for bottom- ing, $2 50 ; heeling, 12 cts. A fast work- man earns about $12 per week. The pro- duction of boots and shoes in Philadelphia in 1860 was $5,474,587, besides nearly $4,000,000 in other articles of leather. The introduction of sewing machines has had an important efi'ect upon the manufacture of both boots and shoes, and more recently, the invention of a machine to peg soles prom- ises to make a still greater change in the principal branch of the Lynn manufacture. The machine in question, for which a pat- ent has recently been issued, punches the leather, and inserts the pegs, in an incred- ibly short time, with the utmost accuracy and efficiency. The sole, when pegged, is perfectly pliable, the pegs forming, apparent- ly, a portion of its substance. The use of these machines is as well adapted to the limited wants of small western towns, as to the grand operations of metropolitan manu- facturers, and local wants may, by their ac- tion, be so gradually supplied, as to dry up those streams which unite in so extended a demand in Boston. Let us go into an eastern machine shoe factory. In a small roem, partitioned off for the purpose, is a neat and compact steam engine, which carries all the machinery, even to the stitching machines. The remainder of the basement is occupied by machines for cutting, stripping, rolling, and shaping the soles. The stock is then passed to the story above, where the shoes are lasted, and the outer soles are tacked on by hand ; by which process they are prepared for pegging. The pegging machines are simple in their con- struction and mode of operation, but per- form the work with great despatch and accuracy, driving the pegs at the rate of fourteen a second. One of the most curious operations of the machine is the manner in which it manufactures the peg for its own use. A strip of wood of the required width, and neatly laid in a coil 100 ft. in length, is put into the machine, and at every revolu- tion it is moved forward, and a peg cut off and driven into the shoe. The rapidity and unerring accuracy with which these machines perform the work, is truly astonishing. After being pegged, the shoes are passed up to the third story, where the bottoms are smoothed, scoured, and brushed, and then sent into the front of the building to be packed, ready for sale and transporta^ tion. Another part of the building is occupied by the women who tend the stitching machines, which are also run by steam : thus saving them from what otherwise must prove a laborious and fatiguing operation. A dozen hands employed in the manu- facture of these pegged shoes will complete about 20 cases per week; and the work being almost entirely accomplished by machinery, gives it a uniformity as to style, shape, and general appearance, which it is impossible to obtain by hand. The pegging machine has been invented but a few years. The work, even now, is said to be fully equal to that performed by hand, and must, therefore, we think, certainly supersede it when the machinery is brought to a higher state of perfection, which, in the nature of things (it being impossible to stay the progress of inventive Yankee genius), must be continually taking place. The style of making boots and shoes changes in some degree, and is leading manu- facturers to introduce improvements, like that of a steel shank, so called, which is a steel spring fixed firmly in the heel, and ex- tending under the hollow of the foot between the soles, to give elasticity to the step. The grades of city work vary with the qual- ity of the material and the labor bestowed. The patent leather custom-made boots com- mand $20 per pair; and the high Russia leather Wellington boots $18 ; and so down to $16,$13, and $11, for calf-skin; with lower rates for split leather, and ordinary material. The scarcity of material, and the high prices of stock, have driven the poorer class of shoe-makers to the use of old tops, or upper leathers, for both boots and shoes. These are not only refooted for the use of the wearer, but are cut down to make new shoes and boots of a smaller size. Many take much pains to buy up old articles of that description, and reproduce them at rates far below what they could be afi'orded by regu- lar shoe-makers from new stocks. Much art is used also in economising the soles of cheap goods. A thin under-sole is used; between which and the in-sole, pasteboard, old slips of leather, and other cheap sub- stances, are inserted, to give an appear- ance of substance. These cheap varieties of shoes supply the wants of those whose means are small, with a semblance of shoe- ing. 326 LEATHER. The phrase, "paper soles," is not unfre- quently used to designate the extremely thin substance attached to the casings of the dainty little feet of our fair sex, but still that substance is leather. Recently, however, a pair of veritable paper soles were put upon a customer, and worn, though for a very lim- ited time. The victim in the case was a strapping negro fellow, who, allured by the seductive invitation to "walk in and see the cheap clodings," entered a Jew's museum, and purchased a pair of laced boots for $1 50. Establishments. H^n^s- Tanneries, 820 6,035 Bark, 30 161 Boots and shoes, 881 6,114 Harnesses, saddles and trunks, 348 902 Hose, 2 6 Lasts, boot-trees and cramps, 10 11 Leather-dressing, 10 80 Morocco, 16 369 Pocket-books and porte-monnaies,. 11 271 Eazor-strops, 1 5 Shoe-pegs, 3 11 Whips, 6 4:1 They fitted well, and wore well for a few hours, but great was his astonishment when his trotters parted company with his boots, and he was once again barefooted. On ex- amining more closely his purchase, he found that the soles were composed of thick paper board, colored to resemble leather, and peg- ged to the uppers. The sympathising justice heard his complaint, but could grant no relief. The New York state census of 1865 gave the following summary of the production of leather, and the manufactures therefrom : — Capital, $10,386,639 14,875 1,856,721 495,400 41,500 59,350 89,600 242,000 190,200 1,800 9,500 3,368 Raw material value. $13,762,384 5^579 2,955,235 344,603 10,575 14,060 261,400 823,983 19,750 1,800. 200 11,730 Value of products. $24,971,708 52,825 5,312,342 829,591 213,650 63,900 446,470 1,318,656 522,800 8,725 23,137 Total, 2,144 14,078 $13,390,953 $18,211,299 $33,763,804 The manufacture of gloves has not ex- tended itself in this country so much as some other industries, with the exception of buckskin gloves, which are peculiarly Amer- ican, combining utility with dress. The use of gloves is becoming far more general in cities than formerly. In early times, the practice of presenting a pair of gloves at funerals to the attending clergy, and others, was carried to such an extent in Massachu- setts, that the legislature forbade the prac- tice, under a penalty of £20. In cold re- gions, gloves are of the warmest wool, or skins, with the fur side out. Buckskin lined with soft wool is often used: the texture changes with the climate to the softest kid and silk. India-rubber gloves are used for many purposes, such as saving the hands of females in many kinds of domestic labor. Some years since, the French government undertook to clear the sewers of Paris from the multitude of rats that infested them, and which had become a formidable nuisance. These rats were of large and divers breeds. It was stated that a contract was entered into with a Parisian glover to purchase the skins for the glove manufacture at a certain price, on the condition that they should not exceed 1,000,000. It resulted that many millions were procured^ and the Parisian house having declined, a London glover took the " lot." It is not certain, however, '.,,.: ±hfi skins are of practical va?"^ The French excel in the manufacture of kid gloves, and Parisian gloves are still with- out a rival. The difference is seen in the cutting of the skin to the best advantage. This is perfomied with scissors, after stretch- ing and rubbing the skin upon a marble slab with a blunt knife. A skin is first cut longitudinally through the middle, by which it is divided into two equal and similar parts ; and the single strip, for the palm and back, is next cut off from one end of the half skin. The pieces for the thumb, the gussets for the fingers, and other small pieces to be inserted, must all be worked out either from the same skin, or from others precisely similar. In this work, it is said, " a Frenchman will gen- erally manage to get one or two pairs of gloves more than an Englishman can from the same skins, and these not inferior or scanty, but as well and handsomely shaped as the rest. This clever and adroit manip- ulation of the leather is an object of great importanee in France, where not less than 375,000 dozen of skins of all kinds are cut up into gloves every year." The nearly square piece cut off is folded over upon itself, giving a little more width for the side designed for the back of the hand ; and upon this oblong, double strip, the workman, measuring with his eye and finger, marks lout the length for the clefts between the TANNING BOOTS AND SHOES. 327 fingers, which he proceeds to cut and shape. Making the hole for the thumb is a matter requiring the greatest skill, for a very slight deviation from the exact shape would cause a bad fit when the parts are sewed together, resulting in unequal strain and speedy frac- ture when the glove is worn. By late im- provements, introduced by M. Jouvin, the thumb-piece, like the fingers, is of the same piece with the rest of the glove, requiring no seam for its attachment. The cutting also is performed in great part by punches of appropriate patterns, and some of these are provided with a toothed apparatus some- what resembling a comb, which pricks the points for the stitches. The scams are sew- ed with perfect regularity by placing the edges to be united in the jaws of a vice, which terminates in fine brass teeth, like those of a' comb, but only one-twelfth of an inch long. Between these the needle is passed in suc- cessive stitches. When the sewing is com- pleted the gloves are stretched, then placed in linen cloth, slightly damp, and beaten, by which they are rendered softer and more flexible. The last operation is pressing. The chief branch of the manufacture carried on in the United States is that of buckskin gloves ; and the most important seat of this bu- siness is at Gloversville, Fulton county, N. Y., where nearly a million dollars' worth were produced in 1860. The statistics of the glove business in Fulton Co., N. Y., in 1865, were as follows : Manufacturers, 87 ; hands employed, 811 ; capital employed, $328,825 ; raw material used, $500,396 ; value of pro- ducts, $1,187,686. The old proverb, "There's nothing like leather," seems to hold good yet, though great and partially successful efforts have been made to substitute other materials and combinations for it. The most noticeable of these have been the "Pannus Corium," a composition kept secret, and now but little used ; the hemp or flax leather, which by combination with certain resins makes a tol- erable substitute for sole-leather ; the artifi- cial leather which by chemical and mechan- ical processes is transformed from old leathern scraps into a homogeneous material, and the modern preparations of papier-mache , which possess the lightness, durability and imper- viousness to moisture of leather itself. The Lineolum or flax oil-cloth, in some of its forms, also makes a fair substitute for leather, as do some of the preparations of india-rubber and gutta-percha. But after all, for many of the purposes for which it is in- dispensable it is still true, that " there's noth- ing like leather." • It follows, from what has been said, that the United States are large consumers of leather ; and when we consider that we are largely a grazing and cattle-growing nation, manufacturing from our native hides a greater quantity of leather than any other nation of equal population, in addition to large imports, it would seem to indicate I an extravagant, if not a wasteful use of leather. We are informed by Adam Smith, who has delineated every point and line of every branch of political economy, and who has, apparently, collected and compressed into three volumes more of the critical history of the individual, as Avell as the general economy of human society, than any one author, and with less of error and mistake than most authors, that it is characteristic with savage nations to export their raw hides, and neither to manufacture nor ase much leather; while civilized nations import largely of raw hides, and manufacture and consume large quanti- ties of leather. It is a fair corollary, then, that our excessive consumption of leather indicates our superior degree of civilization ; and such is undoubtedly the truth. The high grade of civilization of the people of the United States is abundantly evident, and universally acknowledged. FIRE-ARMS. CHAPTER I. COLT'S REVOLVERS — SHARP'S RIFLES — DAHLGREN'S GUNS. The improvements in fire-arms are making such rapid progress among civilized nations, that we may indulge the hope that they will soon cease to be wanted at all ; since, as extremes meet, they may become so effec- tual in their operation, and war reduced to such a science, that an attempt to fight will only be entire mutual destruction, like that most effectual combat between the two Kil- kenny cats. The war of 1866 in Europe, in which Prussia, in seven weeks, broke the power of Austria, is an example of the force that may now be exerted in a short space of time, and the newly-invented needle- gun had a powerful agency in bringing matters to a close. After the invention of gunpowder in the fourteenth century, the art of gunnery made great progress, and the musket came to be the most important weapon. The Roman legions used the short stabbing sword as their favorite weapon. In the age of chivalry, the lance of the horse- man was the queen of weapons, and con- tinued so up to the battle of Pavia, in 1525, when chivalry made its last charge, and went down with the white panache of the gallant Francis I. From that time the ar- quebuse, then a matchlock, improved into a firelock, displaced the English bow, acquired the bayonet, and became, in its turn, the "queen of weapons." When the musket, or " Brown Bess," was furnished with per- cussion caps instead of flints, and the sword bayonet was added, there seemed to be little to hope for in the way of improvement. Since the " wars of the Roses" in England, nine-tenths of all the battles of the world have been decided by projectiles, artillery, and musketry, without crossing a bayonet or drawing a sword. The cavalry, as an arm, has continually lost ground, except in the rout of a defeat, when it follows up a fly- ing enemy. It never could break a square, even when armed only with pikes, and re- cent events have shown that it cannot reach infantry in line. A remarkable change has come over " Brown Bess" of late, and it seems now to have seen its best days. The rifle, or a screwed barrel, was among the first forms of the manufacture of small arms in the sixteenth century ; but the musket was pre- ferred, on account of its more speedy load- ing. The rifle was, however, the favorite with the American colonists, and its execu- tion in their hands during the Revolution brought it into general notice. The adding of the percussion cap was a great improve- ment to it. Recently it has become so im- proved as to supplant not only the old musket, but artillery also, since the events of the last few years have shown that it is easy to silence cannon by shooting down the gunners at their pieces, beyond the reach of grape. In the text-book of the St. Cyr Military School of France, it is directed that the fire of artillery should cease when the enemy is distant twelve hundred yards. At Waterloo, the opposing armies being twelve hundred yards distant, were out of reach of all but solid shot from field guns, as they were then served. It IS now stated that the Minie rifle is effec- tive at a mile distant, and at two thousand yards troops can easily shoot each other. It follows, from these simple facts, that ar- tillery must improve or become ineffective. The improvements in the rifle were mostly in the ball. The French pin rifle had a small steel "pin" in the bottom of the chamber. The powder filled in around this pin, and the ball, of a conical shape, hollow at the base like a thimble, had a small metal plate, which, on being rammed home, struck against the pin, and spread the ball so as to slug the piece. The Minie rifle was nearly the same, without the pin, because it was found that the explosion would of itself spread the ball. The performances of this weapon are somewhat marvellous, since it is colt's revolvers — sharp's rifles — dahlgren's guns. 331 said that it is effective at a distance of over a mile. The most important improvement in small arms has, however, been in repeating weapons, of which the revolvers of Mr. Samuel Colt are the type. Mr. Colt was a seaman in his youth, and while on a voyage to Calcutta devised the revolver. He made the model in wood, in 1829, while at sea. Improving upon this, he took out his first patent for fire-arms in 1835. This was for the rotating chambered breech. This of it- self was no new invention, since many of the old arms preserved in the tower of Lon- don have the same style of manufacture. It is obvious, however, that what is possible in this respect with percussion caps, was not so with the old fiint-lock. Mr. Colt had the advantage of the cap, and his invention caused the chambers to revolve by the act of cocking. In 1851, he read an essay upon the subject before the Institution of En- gineers in London. Patents were issued in France, England, and the United States ; and in 1835 an aimory was established at Paterson, N. J., but afterward abandoned. The first important use made of this new arm was in 1837, by the United States troops un- der Lieut. Col. (now Gen.) Harney. The In- dians were acquainted with a "one-fire" piece, but when they saw the troopers fire six times without loading, they thought it time to give in. There was not much de- mand for the arm until the Mexican war of 1846-47, when a supply was required for Taylor's army. The government ordered 1,000, and there was not a model to be found. This order was filled at Whit- neyville, near New Haven. Other orders followed, and the works were transferred to Hartford. Mr. Colt manufactured on his own account. The California fever set in, and was followed by the Australian excite- ment. The demand for arms thus occa- sioned, induced Colonel Colt to erect an armory unequalled in the world. It occupies what was a flooded meadow of two hundred and fifty acres. This is diked in for two miles, and the most extensive buildings have been erected, at a cost of $1,000,- 000, to supply 1,000 fire-arms per day. In 1858, 60,000 were turned out. All the accessories of these arms — balls, cart- ridges, bullet-moulds, powder-flasks, etc. — are manufactured at this place. There are also extensive works for the manufacture of the machinery by which fire-arms are made. It is to be remarked that at these works the machinery for the British government ar- mory at Enfield has been made ; and also all those for the Russian government at Tula. The arms of Colt attracted great attention at the World's Fair of London. " In whatever aspect the different observers viewed the American repeaters," says an ac- count of the impression they made at the Crystal Palace, " all agreed that perfection had been reached in the art of destruction. None were more astonished than the Eng- lish, to find themselves so far surpassed in an art which they had studied and practiced for centuries, by a nation whose existence was within the memory of man, and whose greatest triumphs had been in the paths of peaceful industry. The Duke of Welling- ton was found often in the American depart- ment, pointing out the great advantage of these repeaters to other officers and his friends ; an^ the different scientific as well as popular journals of the country united in one common tribute of praise to the inge- nuity and genius of Colonel Colt. The In- stitute of Civil Engineers, one of the most highly scientific and practical boards of its kind in the world, invited Colonel Colt to read a paper before its members upon the subject of these arms, and two of its meet- ings were occupied in hearing him, and in discussing the merits of his invention." He was the first American inventor who was ever thus complimented by this celebrated in- stitute, and he received at its hands, for his highly able and interesting paper, the award of a gold medal and a life-membership. In addition to his presence before the institute, Colonel Colt, in high compliment to his ex- perience and skill, appeared also, upon special invitation, before a select committee on small arms of the British Parliament, and there gave testimony which was gladly received, and deemed of superior practical value. His own statements were amply corroborated at the time, before the same committee, by British officers, and others, who had visited his armory in America; and especially by J. Nasmyth, the inventor of the celebrated steam hammer, who, in re- ply to the inquiry, what effect his visit to Colt's manufactory had upon his mind, an- swered: "It produced a very impressive effect, such as I shall never forget. The first impression was to humble me very con- siderably. I was in a manner introduced to such a skilful extension of what I knew to 332 FIRE-ARMS. be correct principles, but extended in so masterly and wholesome a manner, as made me feel that we were very far behind in car- rying out what we knew to be good princi- '-- What struck me at Colonel Colt's was, that the acquaintance with correct prin- ciples had been carried out in a bold, in- genious way, and they had been pushed to their full extent ; and the result was the at- tainment of perfection and economy, such as I had never met with before." All tests and examinations to which the repeating arms were subjected in England, were highly in their favor. Emphatically they spoke for themselves. The enormous power — nay, the invincibility of British troops armed with them, was demonstrated. "The revolver manufactured by Colonel Colt," said the Dover Telegraph, a public journal, express- ing the best and almost universal opinion of England upon the arm, " is a weapon that cannot be improved upon. It jvill, we un- hesitatingly predict, prove a panacea for the ills we have so unhappily encountered in the southern hemisphere. The CafFre hordes will bitterly rue the day on which the first ter- rific discharge is poured upon their sable masses." And so a panacea the revolver did prove, both with the Caffre hordes, and with the Muscovite also, upon the bloody plains of the Crimea. Over 40,000 of these pistols are now in use in the British navy ; and Garibaldi has been ably sustained by a corps commanded by Colonel Peard, and armed with Colt's revolving rifles. The most important progress in the man- ufacture of these arms, is that each separate part of a pistol or carbine is made after one pattern by machinery, and with such entire accuracy, that a number of the weapons may be taken to pieces, and any part of one will fit any of the others. Each separate part is made perfect of itself, and separate boxes contain these parts. The weapons are put together rapidly when wanted. There has been a gradual improvement in them, from suggestions derived from their use in Mexico, the Crimea, and Italy. It is now a world- renowned weapon. The great success of Colt has, of course, brought forth imitations, and repeating arms of many descriptions have been patent- ed. Very many are infringements on Colt. There are Allen's, Derringer's, the Volcano, and other pistols, and Pettinger's patent, which has a revolving chamber, and also a patent lock of some reputation. There has been for some fifteen or twenty years past a constantly-increasing predilec- tion for breech-loading fire-arms, and espe- cially rifles. Breech-loading guns may be divided into two general classes ; those which may be loaded with loose powder and ball, or a paper, linen, or tin-foil cartridge fired with a cap or primer ; and those which use a metallic cartridge having the fulminating composition in its base and fired directly by a blow of the hammer on the cartridge. One of the earliest, as well as one of the most successful of the first class is the invention of Mr. Christian Sharps, of Philadelphia, generally known as Sharps' Rifle. The barrel of this is of cast-steel, and its chamber or ball-seat is counter-bored, slightly conical, the exact shape and diameter of the conical ball, so that when it is properly forced to its seat, it has its axis exactly coincident with that of the bore. It is self-priming with Sharps' primer, but can be used with the ordinary army percussion-cap. They are made of two lengths, 24 and 30-inch barrels, and of difi'erent calibres from 0.35 in. to 0.52 inch. For military purposes this is an excel- lent weapon, especially for cavalry use ; of sure fire, sufficiently accurate for practical purposes, capable of being fired rapidly, of long range and with high-penetrating power. For sporting purposes it is surpassed in ac- curacy, especially at long range, by two or three other guns. The "Merrill'* rifle is another breech- loader, using the paper cartridge and the ordinary percussion cap, and so simple in construction, that muzzle-loading arms can be changed to breech-loaders on its plah with but small expense and without altera- tion of their appearance or strength. It is of long range, easily and rapidly loaded, and accurate in its fire. " Greene's rifle," invented in 1 857 by Lieut. Col. J. Dure 11 Greene, U. S. A., is a breech- loader, admirably adapted for military use, but of different construction from either of the preceding ; rifled on the Lancaster plan, i. e. having an elliptical barrel, with a turn of three-fourths in the length of the barrel, and no grooves. A cylinder of iron contain- ing a breech-plug which slides backward and forward within it, is inserted at the breech of the barrel, and moved forward by a pro- jecting knob, which moves in a slot on the top of the barrel, till it closes the breech, when it is turned to the right and secured in place by shoulders. The knob is held by a FIRE ARMS. 333 catch, which may be loosened by pressing a pin at the breech of the barrel. The ham- mer is on the under side, in front of the guard, and the nipple is so arranged that the fire is first communicated at the forward end of the cartridge, thus insuring the ignition of all the poWder. The cartridge has the bullet in its base, with a greased wad be- tween it and the powder, which, with the bullet, packs the joint perfectly at every dis- charge, and prevents the slightest escape of gas. After each discharge this bullet is pushed forward by the breech-plug to the end of the chamber, the cylinder is then drawn back, and the cartridge inserted in the slot which is thus opened. The cylinder is then pushed forward, pressing the car- tridge before it, and the knob being turned to the side and the nipple capped, the gun is ready to fire. The construction and move- ment are perfectly simple, and the gun is well adapted for rough usage. The " Maynard rifle " is a great favorite with sportsmen and almost equally so with army officers. It was invented in 1851, but has been somewhat improved in form and some of its minor details since. Its mech- anism is very simple, but wonderfully inge- nious. The barrel is attached very firmly to the stock, yet the removal of a single pin disconnects it, and the whole gun, with all its attachments and a supply of extras in case of necessity may be packed in a space 20 inches by 6, and one inch deep. Its pene- trating power, though sufficient for all ordi- nary purposes, is not quite equal to that of the Colt, Spencer, Greene, or Sharps, but its range is as great as either and its accuracy superior to almost any other. It is ordina- rily used with a metallic cartridge very well made, and which is capable of remarkable execution, but these cartridges when empty can be filled by the rifleman expeditiously, or by the use of a charger, always accompa- nying the rifle, loose powder and ball may be used. Instead of a percussion cap. Dr. Maynard's primer, a narrow strip of varnished paper of double thickness, having deposits of fulminating powder in equi-distant cells between the thicknesses 6f the paper, three dozen of which are coiled in a magazine concealed beneath the lock-plate, and brought up by a wheel in the act of cocking ; the fall of the hammer explodes the cell and cuts off" the paper behind it. Of 250 shots fired with this rifle at a distance of 500 yards (1,500 feet,) 214 struck within a space 5 ft. by 5 ft. on the target, and 40 within a circle 2 ft. in diameter. The rifles using a self-exploding metallic cartridge may be divided into two classes ; those loaded with a single cartridge and re^ quiring to be recharged for every shot ; and those having a magazine and arrangement for repeating their fire without reloading. Of the first class, two weapons have attained a deserved reputation, F. Wesson's breech- loading rifle, and the " Ballard rifle." The Wesson rifle is well made, accurate, has a long range and a fair penetrating power. It lacks an arrangement for throwing out the empty cartridge after firing, if it adheres, as it sometimes does. The firing both by this and the Ballard are quite rapid, the motions for reloading being few and simple. The " Ballard rifle " has a good reputa- tion. It is simple in its construction, of somewhat less initial velocity and penetrating power than the Wesson, but sufficient in both for all practical purposes. The ordinary military rifle of this pattern is so arranged that it can be used at will either with the metallic cartridge or the ordinary soldier's cartridge fired with a percussion cap. When the metallic cartridge is used, there is a fin- ger piece under the barrel which throws out the empty cartridge. Of the repeating rifles, there are two, beside Colt's, which is constructed on the same gen- eral principle as his pistols. It is a very ef- fective weapon, and is much liked by sports- men for hunting large game. Like all the Colt weapons, these are manufactured with great care and are surpassed by none in the world in the perfection and exactness of their finish. The other two best known repeating rifles are on entirely different principles, and during the war and since, have won a very high reputation. The Spencer repeating rifle was patented in the United States in March, 1860, and in Europe the same year. While a breech- loader, it repeats its fire seven times, having a magazine with a double sheathing of metal located in the butt of the gun, and thrown forward into the barrel by springs so rapidly and unerringly that if there is a single car- tridge in the magazine it never misses fire, and an ordinarily skilled marksman can dis- charge the seven loads in twelve seconds. Its range is enormous. It will throw a ball with fair accuracy two thousand yards, (over a mile,) and at a distance of one hundred and fifty feet will penetrate through 13 334 FIRE ARMS. inches of timber, and at the same number of yards will penetrate over 10 inches. Its charge of powder is but little more than half the U. S. regulation charge. In the war this rifle did terrible execution; at Ball's Bluff one regiment of the Confederates were armed with it, and to them was due the frightful slaughter of that bloody field. At Gettys- burg, where a part of Gen. Geary's troops were armed with the Spencer, the attack on them by a division of Ewell's (shortly before Stonewall Jackson's) Corps on the night of the 2d of July, was repulsed by a greatly inferior force with terrific destruction of life. An eye-witness said of it, that " the head of the column, as it was pushed on by those behind, appeared to melt away or sink into the earth, for though continually moving it got no nearer." In the western army the same result followed its use; a regiment armed with it being a match for a division with the ordinary Springfield musket. "Henry's repeating rifle" is also a very formidable weapon. Its magazine, a metal tube on the under sijje of the barrel, contains fifteen metallic cartridges, and is opened for their admission and propulsion by a ring or sleeve, also of metal, which turns upon the barrel and is connected by a spring with the carrier-block, and each cartridge in turn placed on this and raised to the level of the chamber by the action of cocking the gun, when a reverse movement of the guard forces it into the chamber ready for firing. The fifteen shots can be fired in less than eleven seconds, and 120 shots in 5 minutes and 45 seconds, including the time spent in recharg- ing the magazine. The magazine is in some danger of being bent or battered by a chance shot in battle, so as not to deliver its car- tridges promptly, and the " sleeve " at the muzzle interferes with its minute accuracy for sporting purposes, but for war purpose's and for great range it is a most excellent weapon. The manufacture of guns is carried to great perfection at the United States armory at Springfield, Mass. The guns are there made of flat bars of iron 14 inches long, 5 3-8 inches wide, and 9-16 inch thick. The edges are beveled, so that when turned over into a cylinder they will make a perfect joint. The bars are fii-st put into a reverbera- tory furnace, and when at a white heat are passed through curving rolls, of which there are five, to bend the bar gradually in order that it may not split. The curving of 450 is a day's work. Before it is curved it is called a plate ; after, a cylinder ; when welded it is a tube, and a barrel when it receives its shape in the taper groove. The welding being completed, the foreman takes the barrel to the straightening machine. This revolves sixtv times in a minute. The machines will weld seventy-five barrels per day. At every stop the tests of guage and inspection are rigidly enforced. The barrels are proved twice, with 360 and 240 grains of powder, and a ball double the weight of the service ball. The stocks are of black walnut, and are delivered by contract in the rough. They are turned into perfect finish in half an hour, passing through sixteen machines of the prin- ciple of Blanchard's lathes. The " furniture " or metallic mountings for receiving the barrel and stocks, are most of them stamped out of plates. The locks are highly ingenious, and brought to great perfection. They are too compli- cated for description. In the year 1859 the government produced 20,000 muskets. The tJnited States rifle musket is composed of eighty-four different pieces, twenty-six of which are of cast-steel, two of wood, and the remainder iron. There are 524 distinct op- erations performed on each musket and ap- pendages. Each operation has a fixed price. During the war the rifle-musket was largely changed into a breech-loader. Among new inventions of breech-loading pistols is that of Stafford, of New Haven. The conical ball, as in the case of all breech- loading arms, is fixed ready for use in a cop- per cartridge, which is dropped from the left hand into the barrel when the pistol is held by the right hand. The barrel being at- tached to the stock by a hinge, is opened to receive the ball. Then, on throwing the barrel into line with the breech, by an up- ward jerk of the right hand, it is ready for use. There is a spring catch in front of the hammer of the lock which catches the barrel and holds it in position until the pistol is discharged. When the thumb is brought down on the catch, the barrel is disengaged, and, by a jerk, is thrown into position for reloading — the whole operation of loading and firing being accomplished in a small fraction of the time required to describe it. This must be so, for an expert can fire six- teen shots a minute with this pistol. The arrangement of sights is also complete, so that any object can be exactly covered by a CANNON, S35 marksmen with precision, and the penetra- tion and force with which the ball is project- ed can hardly be realized by those who have not experimented with it. Cannon. — In 1860 the first of the many recent patents for breech -loading cannon was issued in the United States, France, and En- gland. By this a ball cartridge is dropped into the gun by an opening in the breech, a pin moves forward, pushing the cartridge, closing the hole by which it entered, and dis- charging the piece by percussion powder. After careful and protracted trials, however, it has been very definitely settled, both in England and the United States, that a breech-loading cannon is neither safe nor efi:ective. The whole subject of ordnance, from its elements to its highest principles, has been carefully and profoundly studied since 1858. Many volumes have been written on the subject, and a great variety of methods of constructing guns have been tried, some with a greater measure of success than others, but it can not be said that any of them as yet in all respects come up to the true ideal of a piece of ordnance. The exi- gencies which have grown out of the use of armored ships, have considerably complica- ted the matter. For naval service and for sea-coast or river forts, fortresses and bat- teries, it is requisite that the cannon should be very strong, of tenacious metal, free from liability to burst ; of long range, and large calibre ; if rifled, the missile thrown by it should have a high initial velocity, and great smashing or perforating power ; the gun should be capable of eflBcient and tolerably accurate service at a distance of not less than five miles. Siege guns require very nearly the same qualities. For field service, in movable batteries and sections, smaller guns, usually those carrying balls weighing six, ten, twelve, twenty, twenty-four, thirty, forty or forty-eight pounds, are most in demand, and those of bronze, brass, steel or wrought- iron have generally proved serviceable, tliough the breech-loading principle has never been particularly serviceable, even in the smaller cannon. In the way of heavy guns, the English government have expended many millions in experimenting with and perfecting Sir Wil- liam Armstrong's guns — breech-loaders built up with successive layers of hoops and jack- ets, and which, after all, as much perhaps from their breech-loading principle as any- thing, have proved a costly failure after all, being more dangerous to the gunners who served them, from their leakage and ten- dency to explode, than to the enemy at whom they were aimed. After many experiments, Sir William changed his gun to a muzzle- loader, but its construction was essentially faulty, and the tide of public opinion has set so strongly against them that they have been withdrawn from most of the vessels of the British Navy. Whitworth's guns have come nearer to the true standard of excellence. They are bored out of a block of homoge- neous iron, (a mild steel,) and hooped with steel ; can be used at will as muzzle oi breech-loaders ; the bore is hexagonal, and the rifling about one turn in ten or twelve inches. The missiles are a long flat-fronted steel-headed projectile, (whether shot or shell,) and from the rapid rifling revolve with almost inconceivable velocity. The gun is an expensive one to make, and can only be used with its proper projectile, but it possesses great merits. The Blakely gun was constructed on a different plan, its core being a steel tube, thickest in the middle and tapering towards each end, on which hoops of iron were driven. The bore was oval, but with four or five turns in the length of the gun. It was too apt to explode to be very safe. The Lancaster gun was the first to make use of the oval bore for rifling, but made fewer turns and did better service. It can hardly be said, however, that in large ordnance England had produced the model gun. France had certainly done no better. Her bronze guns were not to be de- pended upon for large calibres. Perhaps the best of the European ordnance was to be found in Prussia. Herr Krupp, a Prussian founder, has been since 1855 engaged in the manufacture of guns of what is there called " homogeneous iron," a mild steel, something like the Bessemer. His guns have possessed great tenacity and strength, and possess a pretty long range. For some years he made only the smaller calibres, but in 1862 he commenced making larger cannon, and has, we believe, made some as large as 500 pounders. These are very expensive by his process, but they are in most respects a very good cannon. The beginning of the war in 1861, as well as three or four of the previous years, were prolific in new inventions of cannon. Of these only a few were put to the test ; the cost of experiments was too great to be in- 336 CANNON. curred unless there was evidently some ex- traordinary improvement. Some of the great founders made their own experiments, but not many of them with any great success. At the commencement of the war, the War Department had 1,052 pieces of siege and sea-coast artillery of all sizes and calibres, and 231 pieces of field artillery. Of the large guns, the greater part were Paixhans or Co- lurabiads, smooth-bores, cast solid and bored ; a few were Rodman guns, cast hollow with a water-core. There was not a rifled cannon in the United States service. The Navy Department had 2,966 guns ashore and afloat, of all calibres. Of these, 2,008 were 32-pounders or smaller guns, and 958 were eight, nine, ten and eleven-inch guns, of many different patterns, 356 being nine, ten and eleven-inch Dahlgrens. The burning of the Navy Yard at Portsmouth destroyed nearly oue-half of these guns, and of the re- mainder not more than 420 were fit for ser- vice. The Dahlgren gun (invented by the late Rear-Admiral J. A. Dahlgren) is a smooth-bore of castgiron, of good model, bored out, and made with great care and perfection. Its great length (the 10-inch Dahlgren was 107 inches in length) and its careful boring made it a gun of very consid- erable range, 1,776 yards, or a little more than a mile, being the average. The Rod- man gun — the invention of the late Capt. T. J. Rodman — is also of cast-iron, but cast hollow with a water-core, which gives to its inner surface the tenacity and strength of chilled iron, the external surface being kept meanwhile at a moderately high tempera- ture. These guns have done excellent ser- vice, and from their very heavy breech have burst less frequently than any other gun. They have been made of very large calibre, fifteen and twenty-inch, and carrying a solid round shot of 500 and 1,000 pounds. For crushing or smashing power at short range, no gun could be more effective. The ball of the 20-inch gun, falling upon the deck or plated roof of an armored ship at a distance of 200 or 300 yards, would crash through any armor the ship could sustain, and sink the vessel. It can be trained with tolerable accuracy to reach a mark 1,000 or perhaps 1,200 yards away, but beyond this its accu- racy is hardly to be praised. The perform- ance of a few of the Whitworth and Krupp's rifled cannon soon created a demand for rifled guns in the Union army. Gen. James, of Rhode Island, had invented a rifled can- non just before the war, but his death, caused by an explosion of his own cannon, prevent- ed its perfection. Capt. R. P. Parrott, of the West Point foundry, had also nearly com- pleted the invention of a rifle of large calibre before the war, and perfected it soon after. This gun is of cast-iron, the inner surface and grooves being chilled by a water-core. Its body is much less bulky than the Rod- man, but it is strengthened at the breech by a "reinforce" or jacket-cylinder of wrought- iron, heated and shrunk on to the breech, and the inner surface of this is cooled before the outside, by means of a double tube filled with cold water. The smaller calibres — 10, 20, 30 and 60-pounders — were wonderfully tenacious, and very few of them burst under the hardest service. The larger calibres — 100 pounds, the 8-inch and 10-inch — under the severe service required of them in the siege of Charleston, occasionally burst, though most frequently in consequence of the premature explosion of the shells with which they were charged. The range of the larger calibres is very great. At the siege of Charleston, the solid shot and shell of the Parrott guns were thrown with great accu- racy, at an elevation of 35°, as follows: 100- pounder, 8,453 yards (nearly five miles;) 8-inch, the solid shot weighing 150 pounds, 9,000 yards (over five miles ;) and the 10-inch, with a 250 pound projectile, five and one- fourth miles. The Parrott projectile is of peculiar form, elongated, and with its coat- ing of lead or soft brass, which swedges readily in the grooves, is somewhat of the shape of a ten-pin. Taking them all in all, the Parrott guns, though not perfect, have done the best work, and at the most mode- rate price, and with the fewest casualties of any rifled cannon now before the public. The Ames wrought-iron gun, though tested carefully, seems not to have possessed all the qualities its friends claimed for it, and the Roberts gun, though evidently of considerable merit, falls short of what is demanded. For field-pieces and guns of small calibre, brass, bronze, aluminium bronze, or the Bessemer steel, seem to possess advantages; but for large guns their cost is too great, and their tenacity but little if at all superior to that of the best cast-iron. When the iron gun, whether cast solid or hollow, has been dressed and drilled, it is ready to be proved, which is done in this country by testing the strength of a cylinder of the iron an inch in diameter and two CANNON. 337 inches long, cut out of the cannon, formerly from one of the trunnions, but now from the barrel near the muzzle. The specific gravity and other properties of the sample are care- fully noted, and these, together with the trials to which it is subjected, and the hard- ness of the metal determined by a very ex- act method, give correct indications of the strength of the gun, without the necessity of submitting it to extreme proof by firing with constantly-increasing charges until the piece is destroyed. Indeed, to such perfection have these proofs been brought, that guns have been selected as of inferior quality from among a large lot, which, on reference to the books of the foundry, were found to have been the only ones of the lot made of hot blast iron. According to the indications furnished by the tests, several guns are usually taken from each large lot of them, to be submitted to extreme proof — the selection being generally of those that appear to be the poorest, best, and intermediate qualities. These are fired commonly with charges of powder equal to one-fourth the weight of the ball, with one shot and one junk wad over it. The firing is continued, unless the piece pre- viously bursts, to 500 rounds. Then one ball more is added with every discharge, till the bore is filled. The powder is afterward doubled in quantity, and the bore filled with shot at each discharge. When it bursts, pieces are selected for further examination from the breech, near the trunnions, and the chase. Guns are also tested by hydrostatic pressure, water being forced into the bore with increasing pressure, till it sometimes bursts the piece, or brings to light its hidden defects by opening the small fissures that were concealed in the metal. It is not un- common for it to appear upon the exterior of pieces, of which the thickness of the metal is four inches, exuding through as a thin froth, which collects upon the outside, and forms drops and little streams. By this method, the exact pressure applied is known, and may be gradually increased to any de- sired degree. Sample bars are also cast to- gether with the cannon, which furnish some indication of the strength of the metal. The different rates of cooling of the large and small mass, however, render their qualities somewhat dissimilar. Not the least singular feature of our artil- lery practice is the "giant powder," so called, now employed in the service. The grains are hard, smooth lumps of irregular shape, varying in size from half an inch to an inch in diameter. This powder is made on the principle of what is known amongst boys as a "spit devil," that is, it is so mixed as not to ex- plode all at once, like the fine-grain powder, the inertia of the bolt being so great that an instantaneous explosion of the whole charge would burst the gun ; but the ignition of the charge being gradual at first, the ball is started without any great strain on the piece, and (it is contended by the friends of great guns) is always successfully launched on its mission of destruction. There is a demand at the present time for what may be called a battery of gun-barrels ; an arrangement of from thirty to fifty gun- barrels on one plane, about four feet three inches in height, and a general reservoir of chambers behind them so contrived that me- tallic cartridges could be discharged from all in a continued stream of fire, by simply turning a crank. A number of different styles of these have been invented ; among them the French Mitrailleuse.; the Prussian Kugelspitzen, both of great service in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870. The best of them all, however, is the " Gatling gun, or battery," an American invention, simpler than either of the others, and possessing the additional merit of causing the barrels to diverge by a simple movement so as to sweep down an advancing column in its whole breadth. Nothing can exceed the simplicity and efficiency of this battery. In actual bat- tle, it is, of course, liable to be shattered and disabled by cannon shot or shell from guns carefully trained on it, but this can only be done at long range, for its own range is nearly two miles, and at that distance it would speedily clear an artillery section of all its gunners. The Ordnance Bureau of the Navy, under the intelligent superintendence of such skill- ful officers as the late Rear-Admiral Dahlgren, and the late accomplished Captain H. A. Wise, conducted numerous careful experi- ments on important questions connected with the range, initial velocity of shot, power of endurance, forms of projectiles, the use of graduated scales in firing, quality of powder, employment of other explosive compounds, &c. The results of these experiments have all been put on record and are of great value to the practical artillerist. It has been set- tled beyond controversy that the destructive power, the " smashing power," as the artil- 338 CANNON. lerists say, of a cannon shot is largely de- pendent upon the quantity of powder which can be thoroughly ignited in the chamber of the gun before the projectile leaves its muz- zle. A gun which, sending a 450 or 500 pound projectile, can burn one hundred pounds of powder before the ball leaves the cannon's mouth, without exploding the gun with the powder, will send that projectile (other things being equal) with a force which no armor plate at three hundred yards' dis- tance can resist. A six-inch plate, backed with ten feet of solid timber, would be crushed and crumbled into fragments, and if the projectile was of hardened steel it would very probably pass through the opposite side of the ship. The intimate relation of heavy guns to the armor of the ships, and the attempt to make an impenetrable armor on the one side and an irresistible projectile on the other, have occupied a great deal of attention for twenty years or more. The French commenced experiments in 1854 and have continued them ever since. The En- glish began still earlier. Our experiments were commenced about 1852, and the Ste- vens battery at Hoboken was begun even before that time, and is not yet (1870) finished. Tlie war of 1861 at once demon- strated the necessity of armored ships, and our government made haste to build them. The first Monitor, and the Galena, a wooden armored vessel, were earliest afloat, and the former, not a moment too soon, at- tacked and disabled the Rebel iron-clad Merrimac. Subsequently other monitors, and the New Ironsides, an armor-plated ship of the line, were sent out. The monitors did good service in besieging forts and seaports, but were not adapted to ocean -fighting, or rough water navigation. On the western rivers a class of iron-clads adapted to river navigation, as well as those of lighter plating, commonly known as tin-clads, were rapidly constructed. Other armored vessels, mostly modifications of the monitor principle, though possessing better sea-going qualities, were built, though not generally until too late for service in the war. The Puritan and Dictator, gigantic monitors, were neither of them put in commission. The Miantonomoh and her consort, turreted iron-clads, but of a difterent model, have proved the best of our armored ships. The Dunderberg, an iron-plated ram of great size and immense power, was sold by its builder, with the consent of the U. S. government, to the French, and now forms one of the most formidable vessels of the French navy. It is worthy of note that our most fa- mous naval victories, whether over single ships or in squadrons, were fought by wooden vessels mainly. The Kearsarge, which fought and sunk the Alabama, was a wooden ship ; the fleet of Admiral Farragut, which ascended the Mississippi to New Orleans, as well as that which subsequently passed Port Hudson, were wooden ships. The fleet which cap- tured the forts at the mouth of Mobile Bay, and crippled the Rebel iron-clads, were mostly wooden vessels, and of the five iron- clads in the Union fleet, one was sunk by a torpedo. In the siege of Charleston, the iron-clads did some service, though but little compared with the shore batteries, and at the taking of Port Royal, it was wooden ships alone which bombarded and silenced the forts. At present our navy lacks both armored and unprotected ships of the best kind, and is. poorly prepared to resist an invasion by sea. Our harbor-defenses employ the largest por- tion of our heavy guns ; yet very few of our harbors are in a complete state of defense. New York, the most important and the most exposed of these, has numerous forts at both entrances to its harbor, Long Island Sound and the Lower Bay, but though these mount several 20-inch Rodman guns, and 10-inch Parrotts, it is doubtful whether they could prevent a fleet of iron-clads like the Monarch from coming up to the wharves. The plan of a revolving iron tower to be placed in the center of the channel, on an artificial island, for harbor defense, was first broached by Mr. Theodore R. Timby, of New York, in 1841, and his plans, thoroughly perfected, were presented to the government and the people in 1863 or 1864, but have not as yet been adopted. It was from Mr. Tiraby's model of a revolving iron tower, that Capt. John Ericsson gained his idea of a turret for his monitors. The Fi-anco-Prussian war of 1870 will doubtless solve the questions of the comparative value of different models of cannon, the adaptability and serviceabil- ity of cast-iron, wrought-iron," steel, bronze, and aluminium bronze for guns of large calibre; the best thickness of armor, and form of armored ships, to render them invulnerable ; the best method of harbor de- fense ; the advantages and disadvantages of the Mitrailleuses or Gatling batteries ; and the changes in the handling of armies which these inventions and the rapid transportation of troops by railroad necessitate. ■h^^^Hltiiat our most. ^- ..val victor! roversingleshipfs , .1 ri .n ^^ ',. . by wooden vessels ^e, which fought and uj H-MMi o(i' as a woodei;"8hip ; the ler before the ball ^'gut? which ascended . ::.,:;n. without exp' ' - ' ••'— S as well a^ . : I H . u der. will send ^ 'ort Hudson, can resist. ' '^*' *cn font of ^^"' Union 2ct;t, uiic v, .y a . the siege of Ch the rk, the v and the most I- ji-ii., . Mi.v'tui^ forts at both T, Long Island Sound >.y^ but though these mount Ivodman guns, and 10-inch is doubtful whether they could ot of iron-clads like ihe Monarch ;^ up to the wharves.. T" •n^r iron tower to be plw innel, on an ar' . o, was first br ' .L Timby, of New York, m J841, ms, thoroughly perfected, were government and the people i, but have not as yet been ;> from Mr. Timby's model • '^ tower, that Capt. John idea of a turret for ^Van co-Prussian war of solve the questions of f different models i}'^and scrviceabil- ron,* steel, bronze, >r guns of large >^ 340 CUTLERY. a fine finish is required, or great hardness, the blistered steel is melted into cast steel, and the ingots are forged into bars. Simple articles, such as chisels, are made by ham- mering a bit of cast steel into the required shape. This being intended only for the edge, is made very thin, and upon it is welded a flat slip of iron, which has been forged into the shape of the chisel, with a shoulder formed by driving it into a hole in the anvil. One side of the chisel is, there- fore, iron, intended to be ground away, and the other steel. Scissors are made of various materials. Common ones are shear steel, with the blades hardened. Tailors' shears have the blades only steel ; the remainder is iron. Formerly, only the edge was steel. Some scissors are made of good cast iron, called run, or virgin steel. Of these, many are sold for V cents a dozen. There are some, on the other hand, made with bows and shanks of gold, and sell for $50 a pair. When made wholly of steel, the blade is hammered out at the end of a small bar. It is then cut oflf, with enough to form the shank and bow. A hole is then punched ; the instruments shaped, united by a screw, ground, filed, and burnished. The blades ate slightly bowed, in such a manner that they touch each other only at the point of cutting, and this point moves as the blades close in the act of cutting, from the pivot to the point. This operation is seen by hold- ing a pair of scissors, edgeways, to the light. This action gives smoothness to the cut. The manufacture of table cutlery is of recent introduction into the United States ; and it has made progress, by reason of the American invention of a machine to form the blades, which invention has been adopt- ed in Europe. In the old process, the blade of a table or other large knife is hammered out on an anvil at the end of a bar of steel, and cut off". It is then welded on to the bar of wrought iron, about half an inch square, and enough of this is cut off to form the bolster, or shoulder, and the tang. The blade is then heated and hammered, or, as it is called, smithed, which serves to condense the metal, and enable it to acquire a higher finish. The mark of the maker is then stamped upon it, and it is hardened by heat- ing to redness, and plunging it into cold water. It is tempered to a blue color, and is then ready for grinding. The small blades of pen-knives are hammered, entire, out of the best cast steel. A temporary tang is drawn out, to secure the blade while it is ground. A number of blades are heated together for tempering, by being placed over the fire, upon a flat plate, their backs downward. When at the proper degree of redness, so as to take a brown or purple color, they are dipped in water up to the shoulder. For razors, the best cast steel is selected ; and when the blade is shaped upon the anvil, from a bar as thick as the back of the razor, and half an inch wide, it is well smithed, to condense the metal. Only the best metal will bear the working down of^ one part of the blade to the requisite thin-^ ness, while the back is left thick. The shape is further improved by grinding on a dry, coarse stone. The tempering is per- formed after the blade is drilled for the pin of the joint, and stamped. It is then ground and polished. The grinding and polishing of cutlery is conducted mostly by wheels constructed for the purpose. There is a trough, with a stone for grinding, and a polisher, driven by a pulley. The stones vary in diameter from 4 inches to 2 feet, according to the articles to be ground. The convex surface of the small wheels gives the concavity on the blade of the razor, and the other wheels suit the various sizes and shapes of the articles pol- ished. Some are used dry, and others are kept wet, in order that the heat engendered by dry grinding may not injure the temper of the articles ground. The dry grinding is more expeditious*, but, unless the troughs are furnished with a ventilating fan and flue for carrying off the fine metallic particles and dust from the stones, the health of the worker suffers. This flue is constructed of tin, in the shape of a sort of cap, that comes over the back of the stone; the other end of the flue is in an adjoining room, and has the air partly exhausted from it by a fan in rapid motion. This creates a strong cur- rent, which, when the stone is in operation, carries the dust and filings from it into the flue. When the grinding is completed, lap- ping succeeds. This is done on a thin wooden wheel, faced with a tire of metal made of five parts lead to one of tin, and cast upon the edge of the wheel. It is then^ turned true, and indented, so as to hold A dressing of oiled emery of different degrees of fineness. The steel blades receive various degrees of polish, by drawing them from end to end across the revolving lap, which is fed with emery of various sizes. UNITED STATES INDUSTRY AXES. 341 The handles of cutlery are made of a variety of substances : ivory, horn, mother- of-pearl, tortoise-shell, cocoa-nut, maple-wood, etc. Ivory is mostly used for table-knives. A solid piece is cut out, of the right size, and a hole for the tang bored at one end. This is sometimes carried through, so that the tang may be visible. When it does not go through, the tang is secured by cement. By a late contrivance, a little spring-catch is fastened to the tang, which falls into a notch made in the cavity of the handle, and pre- vents it from being withdrawn. Balance handles are made by introducing lead into the handle, to counterbalance the weight of the blade. The handles of pen-knives are complicated. The springs must be nicely adjusted, requiring a peculiar temper. The slips for the handles require great care in the fitting. It is stated that a three-bladed knife passes through the finisher's hands one hundred times. The manufacture of butcher and shoe knives is large in the state of New York. The state census of 1855 gave it at 35,000 per annum, and it has since increased three- fold ; and these have a wide reputation. The manufacture of forks is said to be one of the most unhealthy of the mechanical arts. It has been estimated that the destruc- tion of life in it is greater than in any other pursuit, by reason of the fine dust evolved in the process of grinding, and which fills the atmosphere of the rooms, and invades the lungs of the operators. This takes place in the finishing. The forks are hammered out of square steel rods, 3-8ths of an inch thick. The tang and shank are roughly shaped at the end of the steel rod, and are then cut off, with about an inch of the square steel besides. This is drawn out flat for the prongs ; and the tang and shank are then shaped by the die. The other end, heated to a white heat, is laid in a steel die upon an anvil, when another die, attached to the under face of a heavy block of metal, is allowed to fall upon it from a height of V to 8 ft. The prongs are thus shaped, and all, but a thin film of steel, removed from between them. This is cleared out by an instrument called a fiy press. A number of forks are collected together, and annealed by heating and allowing them to cool slow- ly. They are now sufficiently soft to be easily shaped by the file, and by bending. They are then heated to redness, and suddenly cooled, by which the hardness is restored. The process of hardening renders all steel brittle ; and it is intended to remove this, by tempering. The higher the heat when the metal is hardened, the softer and stronger will be the steel. A lower degree of heat gives more hardness, and also more brittle- ness. The temper is indicated in the color, and the temperature which produces that color follows a regular scale. Thus, 430 degrees of heat give a very pale straw color, suitable for the temper of lancets. Higher degrees of heat give darker shades of yellow, suitable for razors, pen-knives, and chisels ; until, at 600 degrees, the color is brown- yellow, adapted to axes and plane-irons. Twenty degrees higher, the yellow has a purple tinge, seen in table knives. Thirty degrees more, and the dark color of a watch- spring is obtained. Again twenty degrees, and the dark blue of saws is visible. At 630 degrees, the color has a tinge of green, and the steel is too soft for instruments. This color is supposed to be produced by the action of the oxygen of the air upon the carbon of the steel, and protects the metal from rust in some degree. One of the most necessary tools for a new and agricultural country is the axe. The remains of all lost races generally disclose, in some rude form, that useful instrument; and the modern nations of Europe present it in an improved metallic form. The Spanish axe, which has no head, is made by hammering out the bar, and turning it into a loop, to make the eye. The manufacture of the axe has, however, like its use, been carried to its highest perfection in the United States. An American axe has a fame coextensive with that of an American backw oodsman, who alone, of all the nations that visit this continent, is fitted to struggle with the mighty forests with which the country was covered. While the American pioneer, axe in hand, boldly buries himself in the forest to clear and subdue it, the European keeps rather to the plains, as more easily managed. The experience in the use of the axe, and the various uses to which it is applied, have combined to produce great varieties, all of which have undergone con- tinual improvements. Formerly, the opera- tor depended upon the rude forges and lim- ited skill of blacksmiths to supply axes. With the improvements that suggested themselves, special factories sprung up, and the largest factory of the kind in the world is in New England. There, 1,200 tons of 342 CUTLERY. iron, and 200 tons of cast steel, are by machinery wrought annually into tools. In the most recent process, hammered bar iron is heated to a red heat, cut of the requisite length, and the eye, which is to receive the handle, punched through it. It is then re- heated, and pressed between concave dies, until it assumes the proper shape. It is now heated, and grooved upon the edge, to receive the piece of steel which forms the sharp edge. To make the steel adhere to the iron, borax is used. This acts as a soap to clean the metal, in order that it may ad- here. At a white heat, it is welded and drawn out to a proper edge, by trip ham- mers. The next process is hammering off the tool by hand, restoring the shape lost in drawing out ; it is then ground, to form a finer edge. It is then ground upon finer stones, and made ready for the temperer. The axe is now hung upon a revolving wheel in a furnace, over a small coal fire, at a peculiar red heat. It is cooled, successively, in salt water and fresh water, and then tem- pered in another furnace, where the heat is regulated by a thermometer. It is then polished to a high finish, which will show every flaw, and enable it to resist rust. It is then stamped, and the head blackened with a mixture of turpentine and asphaltum. The manufacture of scythes has reached a high state of perfection in the western states, and the patterns have been imitated to a great extent in Europe. The manufacture of surgical instruments has become large in the cities, mostly in Philadelphia, where the manufacture has acquired much celebrity. The ingenuity and skill with which an infinite variety of instruments are adapted to the purpose of operations upon the living fibres of the body, are marvellous in their way. The quantities supplied to the west and south are large. The production of cutlery and edge tools in the Union, according to the census of 1860, was as follows : — Number of factories 296 Hands 5,375 Capital $3,168,449 Cost of labor 1,938,147 Cost of material 1,994,477 Value produced 5,695,853 This was for the year 1860. The exports of edge tools are principally of axes, which are well known all over the world. Of these, $500,000 worth are produced in one estab- lishment. Colli nsville, Connecticut. The im- ports, however, continue to be large. In the year 1 860, they reached $2,240,905, of which five-sixths was from England. The quantity imported is far from keeping pace with the number and wealth of the population. The great demand from the latter is supplied by the increasing home production of individual operatives. FURS AND FUR TRADE. Among vhe natural products of the new world, the valuable furs of the various wild animals which peopled its boundless forests, its rivers, lakes, and seas, were soon appreciated by the early discoverers and ex- plorers. For many centuries the choicer varieties of fur had been held in the highest estimation, and the use of such as the er- mine and sable was monopolized, by special enactments, by the royal families and nobility of both European and Asiatic countries. A market was therefore ready for the large supplies which were soon furnished to the early settlers by the Indians in exchange for the trinkets, liquors, and numerous articles of trifling value brought from Europe for this trade. The English and French com- peted with each other to secure the control of the business around Hudson's Bay and in the territories now constituting British America, extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Each nation established its own trading posts, or " factories," and protected them by forts, and the possession of these often passed by conquest to the rival party. Tlie incorporation of the Hudson's Bay Company in 16Y0, by Charles H., gave a de- cided stimulus to the English interest, by securing to men of great influence and wealth, the control and monopoly of the fur trade throughout the possessions claimed by the British. The enormous profits realized by this company induced the Canadians, in the latter part of the last century, to form another company, which they called the North-west Fur Company, and whose field of operations was nominally limited to the temtories ceded to the English by the French in 1763. Early in the preseht cen- tury their factories were extended westward to the rivers that flow into the Pacific, and they employed of Canadian voyageurs and clerks, who were mostly young men from Scotland, about 2,<>00 persons. They ac- quired possession of Astoria, at the mouth of the Columbia, in 1813, and vigorously competed with the old company — the two associations carryingx^n open war throughout the wild temtories known only to these fur traders and the Indians they controlled; By act of parliament, the two companies were united in one in 1821, and their opera- tions have been continued under the name of the Hudson's Bay Company until 1859, when their last special license of 1838 ex- pired. The company has exercised a des- potic sway throughout the territories it occupied, compelling the labor of the poor French voyageurs and the Indians, and causing them to subsist upon the most meagre fare and pitiful allowance. Sad tales of their sufferings are familiar to those who have visited these northern regions. The company established an express by the way of the great lakes and the western rivers, and by numerous relays, always ready, in- formation was conveyed by canoes and by land travel in an incredibly short time from the head-quarters of the company at Mon- treal to the most distant posts on the Pacific. Their furs collected on both sides of the continent were transported to London for the great annual sales of March and Septem- ber. From London many were sent to Leipsic, for the great annual fair at this famous mart. While these extensive operations were in progress, the inhabitants of the provinces now constituting the United States derived little or no benefit from the trade so long as they remained British colonies. In 1762, an association was established among the merchants of New Orleans, for conducting the fur trade in the regions on the waters of the Missouri and its branches ; and this led to the founding of St. Louis in 1763, by Laclede, the leader of the organization. This place was made their head-quarters for the reception of furs collected by their voyageurs in distant excursions by canoes and Macki- naw boats toward the Rocky Mountains, among tribes of Indians who often attacked their parties, but who, controlled by the talent and wise policy peculiar to the French, became at last firm friends of the enterprise, and bound to the interests of the Chouteaus and others by whom it was conducted. From St. Louis the peltry was boated down the river to New Orleans, or up the Illinois 344 FURS, AND FUR TRADE. to Lake Michigan, and thence to the great trading post of Mackina\Y. From this it was forwarded by the lakes and the St. Lawrence to Quebec, to be shipped to Eng- land. Over the same routes were returned the groceries, etc., for the supply of the traders, which, so slow were the means of transportation, were the returns in part of the furs collected the fourth preceding year. But though the expenses of the long voyages more than doubled the cost of the supplies after they left Mackinaw, the profits of the business were not rated at less than 300 per cent. For fifteen years preceding 1 805, the annual value of the peltry collected at St. Louis is stated to have been $203,750 ; and the value of the goods annually sent up the Missouri during about the same period was estimated at $61,000. Deer skins con- stituted the greater portion of the product, and they were, indeed, the chief medium of exchange, the value of articles being rated at so many shaved deer skins. Beaver and otter were the next in importance, and buf- falo skins, which are now the chief object of the trade, were then scarcely collected at all. From the year 1818, the fur trade of the north has been conducted almost wholly by organizations which have sprung from these early operations. It was extended by the associations established at St. Louis to the regions beyond the Rocky Mountains, and there carried on at immense sacrifice of human life, from the dangers naturally inci- dent to the pursuit, and the unappeasable hostility of the savage tribes. In 1847 it was estimated that the annual value of the trade had averaged for forty years from $200,000 to $300,000, and the latter portion of this period much more than the larger sum named. But, like the discovery of gold in California, its greatest importance was the opening of uncultivated territories to the advance of civilization, and the introduction of a permanent population for the establish- ment of new states. During the last century the fur trade had attained to no importance in the eastern states. Mr. John Jacob Astor, of New York, engaged in it in 1784, buying in Montreal and shipping to Eng- land. But under the treaty of 1794 he was enabled to introduce fur from the British provinces into New York, and he then opened a new trade direct with foreign coun- y^ tries, shipping peltries even to China, and receiving in exchange the rich products of the East Indies. As his operations pros- pered, he engaged in the early part of the present century in the collection of furs along the northern frontier, a field which had before been in exclusive possession of the North-west and Hudson's Bay Companies; and he labored zealously in the great national enterprise of diverting this important trade from the exclusive control of foreign com- panies, and causing it to contribute to the commercial interests of the United States. With wonderful energy, and dependent al- most solely on his own resources, he carried on these gigantic operations, having in 1808 a capital of no less than $1,000,000 in- vested in them. In 1810 he established the Pacific Fur Company, for the purpose of forming a settlement on the Pacific coast, and by means of it carrying out the grandest commercial scheme that had ever been un- dertaken. His ships, leaving New York with supplies for the colony, were to obtain from it and by trading along the coast car- goes of furs to be sold in China, and there loading with teas, silks, etc., would return to New York, making a complete circum- navigation of the globe. Mr. Astor was bound by his articles of agreement to fur- nish capital to the amount of $400,000 if required, sending each year an expedition around by sea and another across the coun- try to the mouth of the Columbia, and the profits were to be equally divided between, his associates and himself. Notwithstanding a succession of disasters, Mr. Astor con- tinued for three years to despatch a ship bound around Cape Horn, to the mouth of the Columbia, having unshaken confidence in the final success of the enterprise. And such, no doubt, would have been the result, had not his principal Canadian partner, who controlled the affairs at Astoria (the settle- ment on the Pacific), proved treacherous and given up the post to the rival North-west Fur Company for a mere nominal price, on the pretence that it would certainly be seized by the British cruisers during the war. This occurred on the 16th October, 1813. From that time the operations of Mr. Astor were restricted to the northern terri- tories lying east of the Rocky Mountains. His factories were at Mackinaw, and at the foot and head of Lake Superior, upon whose waters he maintained sailing vessels long before they were visited by the explorers of copper mines. Up to the year 1 845 the only business prosecuted upon its distant FURS, AND FUR TRADE. 345 shores was that of the fur hunter, and they were, in fact, known only to this class and to the wandering Chippewa and Sioux tribes of Indians. The territory of Minnesota, also, and the still more western regions, were fre- quented only for the same object previous to 1848. From that period, or even earlier, the fur trade has declined in importance, and its profits have been divided among larger numbers of adventurers. The house of Pierre Chouteau, jr., luck once more here. But to such poverty was he now reduced, that he was obliged to pawn his effects to pay his wife's pas- sage, and to work, as an ordinary deck hand, for his own. Arriving penniless, but 420 INDIVIDUAL INDUSTRIES. not disheartened, confident that some day his invention would be appreciated, he re- sumed his old employment as a journeyman mechanic, for a livelihood. At length the tide of circumstances turned in his favor. The infringement of his patent, by the three companies above referred to, and by other parties of less note, in a short time accom- plished what he had never been able to do himself; as great numbers of machines, of various makers, were thus distributed, by means of which the utility of the sewing machine was soon demonstrated. These infringements furnished also the occasion for legal proceedings, in the course of which the validity of his patent was established by judicial decisions. Of the suits brought by him against those three companies, one re- sulted in a judgment, in his favor, and the other two were settled, before decisions had been reached. At this time, or soon after, an arrangement was entered into between Mr. Howe, Wheeler Tt CM TO ■«»< O 5 -^ 00 •tPTO 00 oot-p ioo»o .§ )iM.-irf«OOl-«OGOiO«©r-i ;^s .§S5 ^ g o h . « c o • fe ^ -£3 « o S 't-^oi eooo'i»t^oi«0(>i(?iodrHOi^je©Q6-*adr-io^OT-i«o© >TO<0 00 •1-1 ( 1 1-; o "d ■ Ti? < •sauaAooai JO •";u90jaj; I (M^-iOSOO Ot-t-t-Ot-T-iO'^i-iOOTO r-it-TO«OQ0 .eoi-TOtOTO^OOSi-iO — o«©-*-*OTOeoooeooooje» ■ •--•-• • •■ -• -•^•(M"^«JoJoir-*b^50r-."F^o6co-*'i-5co»o** O O «OI > OJ «6 O • t- ( t»t-b-000(NO><-iOOO«C 00«OrH«* i-ir}OM0J04 tH r-( TO ei TO -^ — I « ri «^ TO 00 ,-1 OO (M •>* OS b- tH i-(0 ©»Ot-THiOt-OSOT-it-Ot-T-( rjt OS • -O ift « «» © t- •* »Q «0 TO • © OT-i<»YH^©TO''5«ff>»5«?<=>'-"*"»«'*-'*TOQ0'*t-OS©Q0-<* lftt-»0<©b-0,-iOSTHO>-!-it--^ ©ocooD® ©(Me5TO'^©25'*Oso^©<©ect-os©'*OGOi-iTO JO • •©«© imooto t)< v5«ot-^»--^ S< tH >* rl TO TO N tH tH * (N (>> tH t-i S TO rl 1-1 rl • • tHt-i tH ffl^ i-( tH ©» 1-1 i-< i-( (J» « ^SooooQoSooaSSoOQOoOooSS* •ooSSSSoSt-ooSSooSSSSSooAooSSooonaOQOaDooaoaoc O- - - - i^. WP*^ a" lililillsllrlll IlllliililH llntlii^i^ 5^s§ 00 c |S t n r © il a t- g ^ 6 « s- 3 THE RELIEF OF THE POOR. 445 type, assuming oftener the violent form ; while in Europe, the pauper insane, who form the largest portion of those afflicted, have usually become so under the influence of insufficient food and depressing circum- stances, and are melancholy and dejected, rather than violent. The preceding table, prepared with great care, exhibits the condition and success of nearly all the public insane hospitals of the United States, up to January, 1860, though a few of the returns of the remoter institu- tions are of the previous year. CHAPTER III. THE RELIEF OP THE POOR In every large community there is, of ne- cessity, a dependent class, to be in some way provided for ; their poverty and help- lessness may proceed from the loss of their protectors, the husband or parents, at a time when they were unable to provide for them- selves; from sickness; from mental or phys- ical incapacity for self-support; from lack of employment ; or from intemperance and vicious indulgence. Whichever of these causes may have in- duced this state of dependence, it is a recog- nized duty in all civilized communities to diminish, and so far as possible prevent, ex- treme suffering on the part of those thus helpless. The methods of accomplishing this result are of necessity various. All who need, at times, pecuniary aid, are not paupers ; and to treat them as such would not only wound and distress them needlessly, but would in the end produce a demoralization and indis- position to exertion which would throw an intolerable burden on the tax-paying class, who would be compelled to support them. It was the recognition of this truth which led very early to the organization of asylums, dispensaries, and relief societies for the or- phan and the widow (especially those of cer- tain classes), the aged and infirm, and the sick. It led also to the administration of private charities, which, although sometimes inju- dicious, was prompted by the most humane motives. It also led to the distinction be- tween the out-door poor and the pauper, which is commonly established in our large towns. The methods of providing for the poor, as well as the authorities who take charge of it, vary in different sections of the country. In New England, where the town was an older political organization than the county, province, or state, the legal care of the poor has always devolved upon the first town officer, or selectman, as he is usually called. To him all applications for assistance are made, and after the necessary examination into their condition and necessities, relief is furnished, to a limited extent, from the town treasury. Those needing only temporary assistance receive small sums, and are en- couraged to struggle on at their homes; those wholly dependent are provided for, in the smaller towns, by contract with some citizen, who for a stipulated sum agrees to provide them with food, clothing, and shel- ter, employing such of them as are able to perform some labor, in such work as their health or want of skill will permit. In the larger towns, this class are received into almshouses, to which often a farm is at- tached, much of the lighter labor of which is performed by the paupers. Paupers of foreign birth, who have never gained a resi- dence in any town, as well as vagrants who have no fixed abiding place, are sent to a state almshouse, or placed in charge of a state contractor for the poor. In the middle and western states, the assist- ance to the poor and the support of paupers are a county charge, and are under the control of supervisors elected by the voters of the county. Those entirely dependent are usu- ally quartered in a county almshouse, and, where practicable, employed in light labor. In the Southern states, with a milder climate and a sparser population, there is less occa- sion for definite preparation for the wants of a pauper class, especially as a very consider- able portion of those who would elsewhere be dependent upon the public are, from the peculiar constitution of their institutions, cared for, when infirm, sick, or disabled, by their masters. Hence, except in the cities and large towns of the South, there has been no well-defined provision for paupers. At the close of the Revolution, there was a vast amount of poverty and suffering, the result of the prostration of commerce, the ravages of war, the loss of the productive in- dustry of so large a number of able-bodied men for several successive years, and the complete and ruinous depreciation of the continental currency. From this condition, however, under the stimulus of an active and prosper- 446 HUMANITARIAN AND CORRECTIVE INSTITUTIONS. ous trade and commerce, the country soon rallied, and though the war of 1812 brought much privation and loss of property, yet the constant westward emigration, and the enter- prise of the people, kept the pauper popula- tion within narrow limits. The poor were mostly natives of the country, and the ties of kindred were strong enough to prevent the burden of their support from pressing heavily on the public treasury. In the larger towns, and especially in the seaports, where there was the largest influx of persons of foreign birth, and of families reduced to poverty through the vicissitudes of a seafaring life, there were benevolent so- cieties, some of them dating back almost to the revolutionary period, of the different na- tionalities, which bestowed aid on their own countrymen, and marine societies (that of New York founded as early as 1770) to pro- vide for the widows and orphans of seamen. There were also one or two dispensaries in the larger towns, for providing medical at- tendance and promoting vaccination among the poor. Between 1800 and 1830, relief societies, some of them connected with par- ticular trades or professions, such as the tai- lors', house-builders', firemen's, etc., some composed of persons of particular national- ities, as the Germans, Irish, etc., and oth- ers of a more general character, like the Ma- sonic,Odd Fellows', and Temperance Lodges, were organized, having for their object the care of the sick, and provision for the wid- ows and orphans of their members. The New York Hospital opened in 1792, the City Hospital at Bellevue, the New York Eye and Ear Infirmary founded in 1820, the City Dispensary founded in 1791, the North- em Dispensary founded in 1827, and the Ly- ing-in Asylum founded in 1824, afforded the necessary medical treatment to those who were without means to pay for the attend- ance of a physician. Soon after 1830, how- ever, the tide of European emigration began to set westward, and with each successive year, larger and still larger numbers of emi- grants, at first mainly from Ireland, but sub- sequently in quite as large numbers from the German states, began to pour in upon us. Many of these possessed a small amount of money, and others, stout and able-bodied, found ready employment at remunerative wages, and provided well for themselves and families. No inconsiderable portion, however, had either been paupers at home, or coming here with insufficient means, their manners, cus- toms, and language diverse from ours, and the climate, under their privations, proving far more severe than that of their native country, sunk down into a hopeless and de- spondent pauperism almost immediately on their arrival. With the intent of obviating this influx of foreign pauperism, stringent laws were passed by the states having exten- sive commercial relations with Europe, pro- hibiting the reception, by captains of emi- grant ships, of pauper emigrants, and a tax of two dollars per head required of all emi- grants arriving at the principal ports, or a bond by the ship-owners to the state that they should not become chargeable to the state within three years. These laws were so constantly evaded, and the pressure of foreign pauperism in consequence became so severe in New York, the great port of entry for emi- grant ships, that a modification became nec- essary, and aboard of Commissioners of Emi- gration was appointed to receive the emigrant tax, which was raised to three dollars, and they were required to establish hospitals, almshouses, etc., and to assume the entire responsibility for the pauperism of emigrants for five years after their arrival. Measures nearly as stringent were adopted by Massachusetts and Pennsylvania. Notwithstanding these efforts to restrain within due metes and bounds the influx of foreign pauperism, and prevent its becoming chargeable upon our own citizens, its in- crease in New York, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, has been such as to create no small degree of alarm on the part of the tax- payers. The state of New York alone had, in 1865, 278,558 town and county paupers, beside 227,049 temporarily reheved. The expense was $3,110,255. This is 7.4 per cent, of her population, or nearly one pauper for every 13 persons. This proportion is about eight times that of Ireland, and more than double that of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland ; and formidable as it is, it does not include any of those un- der the care of the Commissioners of Emi- gration. Of this number, more than 75 per cent, are either of foreign birth or the children of foreigners. In New York city the proportion of foreigners exceeds eighty per cent. These statistics, however, by no means tell the whole story in regard to the depend- ent poor of the great cities. Large num- bers, who are unwilling to be enrolled on THE RELIEF OF THE POOR. 44"? O I— I O t- I— I 00 to 05 lO r-i 00 • CD lO t- lO^ ^ 00 r- (M n5 C^ Oi -3 OOt-OlCOOOSXr-M Jt- Cf5 QD -<* Oi 00 t-;_53 CO c0 -^ 'tJ< Cq CD CO Oi rH _J ^ CO CO (M l«>n- Tj< t- CD -^ r-T CO" CO XO CO ■rt— I K Oi tH 00 o -g CO CO~ r-'CO" r4~ ^ - C^ -5H ^ O Oi ■<* rH CO CD Oi Oi USOt-ClOt- ■«* \a loocovftcooo ■"• O "^ "==Lr-i ® Ti? '^^ Oi" c.^ TO (D OS *J fc« .^ o .g «« O S © «4-, *-' ® 3 ^O fl be o S a =3 5 o I gl 448 HUMANITARIAN AND CORRECTIVE INSTITUTIONS. the city or county records as paupers, are still dependent for a considerable share of their support, especially during the winter months, on private charity, bestowed either through the churches with which they are connected or some of the societies or asso- ciations devoted to the relief of the poor. These organizations have greatly increased within the past twenty years, in all our large cities, and though varied in their specific purposes, they all have the general object of ameliorating the condition of the poor. For the sick poor, hospitals, dispensaries, and infirmaries have been greatly multiplied ; for the aged and infirm and for very young children, homes and nurseries have been es- tablished ; for widows and orphans, widows* societies, assistance societies, and orphan asylums ; for the disabled, relief societies ; for youthful offenders or the morally en- dangered, asylums, houses of reformation, houses of industry, children's aid societies, and ** missions ;" for the intemperate poor, inebriates' homes and Samaritan homes; and for the poor in general, associations for improving the condition of the poor, prov- ident societies, soup houses, etc., etc. In addition to these, very large sums in the aggregate are bestowed by the benevo- lent in private charity to the poor and suf- fering, and sums almost as large in contribu- tions to the importunate mendicant, by those who give from impulse and a naturally gen- erous disposition. The great increase of mendicancy, and the annoying importunity of the beggars who preferred a living obtained in that way to one acquired by honest toil, led to the for- mation of a class of organizations now exist- ing in most of the large cities in the country, but originating in the city of New York. In different cities different names for these or- ganizations have been adopted, but their general purpose is the same. "The New York Association for Improving the Condi- tion of the Poor," was not only the first but has been the most efficient in its action. Its purposes, and those of its kindred associa- tions, of which there are now thirteen in as many of our large cities, are, " to discoun- tenance indiscriminate almsgiving and put an end to street begging and vagrancy ; to visit the poor at their dwellings, and extend to them appropriate relief; and through the friendly intercourse of visitors to inculcate among them habits of frugality, temperance, industry, and self-dependence." Each city, where one of these associations exists, is di- vided into districts, which are again divided into sections (New York has almost four hundred of these sections), to each of which a visitor is appointed, who takes upon him- self, without compensation, the entire over- sight of the poor of his section, visiting them, ascertaining their situation, their re- sources, if any, their just claims upon any other organization for relief, and where nec- essary, rendering them such assistance as will enable them to subsist until they can obtain work or aid from quarters where they have a claim for it, or if they need assistance, bestowing it in such a way as not to destroy their desire for self-dependence or injure their self-respect. To check street begging, every member (and any person contributing to the fiinds of the association is a member) is furnished with printed cards and a directory showing the residence of the visitors and the section which they have in charge, and when a beg- gar applies for charity, the member inquires his residence, and instead of giving him money, gives him a card with the address of the visitor upon it, and directs him to call upon that visitor, who will investigate his case, and if proper, render him aid. These associations have also been active in promoting sanitary reforms, encouraging the erection of well-arranged tenement houses, in preventing truancy, in aiding in the forma- tion of temperance societies, in promoting the establishment of dispensaries and houses of reformation, and in diffusing, by means of tracts and handbills, information among the poor on the subject of cleanliness, ventila- tion, and household economy. Ignorance, intemperance, licentious indul- gence, the congregation of such large num« bers in filthy, ill-arranged, and ill -ventilated tenement houses, and disregard of sanitary laws generally, are the causes of more than four fifths of the pauperism of our great cities, and it is only by removing these causes that any considerable diminution in the number of paupers can be expected. The small dependent class whose poverty is not traceable to either of these, can readily be provided for; but the terrible burden of taxation to maintain those who are paupers from their own fault or that of their parents, renders it certain that there must be, ere long, carefully considered, but stringent legislation to prevent the evils which inflict such a burden on the industry of our people. HOSPITALS. 449 CHAPTER IV. HOSPITALS. Hospitals for the sick, either general or special, have been in existence in Europe from the early Christian ages, and their en- dowment has been a favorite form of Chris- tian charity. In this country, the first gen- eral hospital was the Pennsylvania, at Phil- adelphia, opened in 1752. The ch^ter, granted in 1751, contemplated "the recep- tion and relief of lunaticks and other distem- pered and sick poor in this province," and it has always had a department for the in- sane, who occupied a portion of the hospital building until 1 841, when they were removed to the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, then completed, which we have described under the head of Hospitals for the Insane. This building, now the female department of the insane hospital, was erected mainly from funds resulting from the sale of the hospital land, and the general hospital has, aside from this, a permanent fund of nearly $400,- 000 invested, the income of which sustains nearly 150 free beds. The average number of inmates is below 200. The medical staff, selected by the managers, serve gratuitously, and are the most eminent members of the profession in the city. There is a library of over 10,000 volumes attached to the hos- pital. Benjamin West's picture of " Christ Healing the Sick" was painted for this hos- pital, and its exhibition added $24,000 to its funds. The New York Hospital, the first in New York, was incorporated in 1771 by the co- lonial legislature, but was not opened for the reception of patients till 1791. At first it had wards for the insane, like the Pennsyl- vania Hospital, but in 1818 the governors of the hospital established a separate asylum for the insane at Bloomingdale, with an efii- cient superintendent and corps of officers, but under their general supervision, and sup- ported in part from their funds. The gen- eral hospital has grown up to be a very large and admirably managed institution. It is a close corporation, under the control of 26 governors. All cases of serious accident or emergency are admitted immediately, with- out regard to payment or recovery ; other- wise, persons whose cases appear not to ad- mit of cure or relief, are not received. It has four physicians and six surgeons in regular attendance, besides a house physician and several assistants. The entire medical staff is twenty-four. There are about 500 beds. The cost of each patient is $4.32 per week. The rate of deaths to the whole number of patients is only about 5i per cent.; being less than that of any hospital in Europe. Connected with the hospital is a library of between 6000 and 7000 volumes. The Massachusetts General Hospital at Boston, founded in 1817, is an institution of high character and reputation. It has funds to the amount of abont 8300,000 ; a medical staff of 20 physicians and assistants, and about 200 beds. It is managed by a board of trustees, and a president, vice president, secretary, and treasurer. It has an out-door department, furnishing medical ' and surgical aid to over 3000 out-patients. The McLean Insane Asylum, at Somerville, is a branch of the hospital. The annual expenditure is nearly $100,000. There are now in the city of New York seventeen hospitals, and five other institutions having hospital accommodations. Of these, ten are general, and receive patients of all classes except those with contagious dis- eases ; one is for small pox, one for syphi- litic diseases, one for quarantine patients, two exclusively for women, one for children, and one for diseases of the eye. Of the five institutions having hospital accommo- dations, one is for lying-in women, two for young children, one for aged females, and one for colored persons. There are also hospitals connected with the Orphan Asy- lums, House of Refuge, and Juvenile Asy- lum, for the sick inmates of those institu- tions. The entire capacity of these hospital accommodations exceeds 8000 beds. Philadelphia has eleven hospitals, four of them general, one naval, one for infectious disease, one a lying-in charity, one for dis- eases of the eye and limbs, and three for aged and indigent females. The entire num- ber of beds does not exceed 1600. Boston has eight hospitals, of which five are general, and one for diseases of the eye and ear, one for aged and indigent females, and one a lying-in hospital. Brooklyn, N. Y., has five, two of them general, one naval, and two for aged women. Baltimore has three, two of them general, and one for aged women. Charleston has two hospitals, and Norfolk, Va., two, a naval and city institution. Cincinnati has three, one a commercial hospital, one a hotel for invalids, and one a widows' and female asylum and hospital. 4^Q HUMANITARIAN AND CORRECTIVE INSTITUTIONS. EM •Rjnai:j«d[ owjjo jeqtunu epq^ •e^aaj^^Bd Avd jo jaqranu o^oq^ •sinatijBd Avd (y\ 2[»aM. wd eSiBqo -^99M. J9d psoq aed t^soo eioq^ •:?99A J9d p«9q J9d pooj jo :»8oo -"s::--:^' sss . « ® ® <» ®»-00 O B G a CSS p a fl a fl §§S§§gS :::::::§§ ^w -*■ -*■ O 00 tH i-( ©< Tl rH U90J9j •p9Ta •p9A9Il9I ^0^ •p9A9n9a •p9Itl[3 •89pMn9J •e9iBH •8;u9t;Bd JO J9qainu 9ioqAi •noo«z]nBSjo JO 9]V(i ooe^eoo 00 o tt tJ( o oo ooe» ■*«©*-«* •-* -co .»6T-'(Mt-;_ .JOO> T-T • ■ "o'eo oT •t-Tt-T o*»©e3i oo«o«oc»«5««- t-t-t--* • • -IM T-iQOeOOO .«oeo jqf • • • i^of icT 'eoeif eo^«< l^gSg! •* COrl eo«ot-Q « «c t- *» o i« iH to 00 • SSeooSB .o«oooosox •1981 'T ^J«na«f ')a9nqjvd9p jo di^asqo a( Sa|nt«m9;i '0981 ™9^ 3aianp p99«qo8i(i •0981 1V9A 9aijnp p9A]9a9a •0981 'I ifJ«na«P ''o^® '^^nara^jtidap jo 99jBqD uj a9qran^ i s a s i i il 1^ ssss « oot- S SiSSS . rH oseoooeo o : : : : : of : ii Si. .ilSSi i to-* -tDOO -(Mt-OJ-^rH gS .558 .g§g§§ . c^i-H •r^'f-J ■ i-i r^' -: f4 e» • oat- «(M e»«CTH*^ «i t- «$ — CO (N o •>* <*•>* • e<5 »^ GO 05 eo t- •>* ■* rt) »-tH . OS tT" C« 00 ri -^ CO O : : : r^^" §S' OOftOO i«oj 1-teo >o «c «o ' I i-H C< 05 OJ CO — — «C OS o iO-TH eoo coc<««6eo t- "» r^ of §g .^^§^§S§^ . ) o 00 o '^ ■^ «o «o "^ ** Sio ©o»«- •«t«Pt-t-S 00 t-cjo ••<«ieoo«>« —CO t- oo ^ ^8 I" eS bO I is fl OS © Sao III 5 •s"a E il^ I as 22 « « a rt .2 fc « t> *j 00 (D _ ^«-S g i 1^ s ml 2 > g o ca5 «5 ^- 2— ® ^^5 27 452 HUMANITARIAN AND CORRECTIVE INSTITUTIONS. Chicago has a marine hospital. St. Louis has four, one for quarantine, one marine, and two general ; one of them under the care of the Sisters of Charity. New Orleans and Mobile are more am- ply supplied with hospitals in proportion to their population than most of the cities of the Union, the former having four, one of them a United States naval hospital. The Charity Hospital at New Orleans is the largest in this country, receiving from 1 3,000 to 20,000 patients a year, and having about 1000 beds. Mobile has three, one marine and two general. All are large, and admira- bly managed. Most of the cities of twenty thousand in- habitants and over have one, and some of them more than one hospital, though ordi- narily their wards are by no means full. CHAPTER Y. DISPENSARIES. Another of the methods of relief and min- istration to the wants of the poor has been the establishment of Dispensaries. The idea of such institutions originated, we sup- pose, in Rome, but was not adopted in oth- er cities till the latter part of the last cen- tury. In London, a dispensary was establish- ed in 1696. There was none in Paris till 1803. At first, it was simply an apothecary's shop, where medicines were dispensed gratu- itously to the poor. After a time, a physi- cian attended at a certain hour to prescribe for patients who might require treatment; then, as the number of patients increased, they were classified, and other physicians volunteered to take charge of the different classes, and a house physician and apothecary were appointed to take the general oversight, keep the records, prepare medicines, arrange the patients for the classes, etc. ; then, as it was found that many of the sick poor were unable to come to the dispensary to receive treatment, and some of those who came once or twice were unable to continue to attend, and so suffered for the want of medical care, the plan was adopted of dividing the region appertaining to the dispensary into districts, to each of which a district physician was ap- pointed who visited the sick at their dwell- ings. Yaccination, from its first introduction, was largely practised at the dispensaries; and nearly all of them now give attention to it, keeping a supply of the vaccine virus constantly on hand, and vaccinating all who apply, and at some seasons of the year call- ing the attention of the people to the neces- sity of it. To some of the dispensaries a lying-in department is added. The first dispensary in this country was the Philadelphia, founded in 1786. The New York Dispensary, the first im that city, was founded in 1791, and the Bos- ton Dispensary in 1796. There are now in New York six public dispensaries, covering the whole city below Sixtieth street west of Fifth avenue, and be- low Fortieth street east of that avenue. Th© territory of the city below these streets is parcelled out between these dispensaries, in such a way as to give to each a district not excessive either in size or population. Each dispensary employs two or more district physicians, to visit the sick poor at their homes when they are unable to come to the dispensary. The patients who come to the dispensary between the hours of 10 a. m. and 4 p. m., are divided into eight or nine classes, each of which has its room, where the physician in attendance prescribes for the patients belonging to his class. The medicines prescribed are furnished by the institution, and though plainly put up, great care is taken to have them uniformly of the best quality. Besides these, there are three homoeo* pathic dispensaries in the city, and six other institutions of a dispensary character, in- tended for special diseases, three of them for diseases of the eye, and two for women and children. Philadelphia has three dispensaries, two of them with a lying-in department. It has also several institutions which dispense med- icine to the poor, and prescribe for them in particular forms of disease, in connection with the hospital or asylum accommodations. Boston has one central dispensary, which is largely endowed, although its funds are not yet available. This dispensary has two consulting and eight attending physicians, two consulting and four attending surgeons, a medical superintendent and apothecary, and eight district physicians, who divide be- tween them the city territory and visit all the sick poor who apply, and who are un- able to attend at the dispensary. The Mas- sachusetts General Hospital also affords medical and surgical relief to out-patients, to a very considerable extent. DISPENSARIES. 453 ^1 2a fi2 o g 'I •qiJiq nStwoj JO •q^JiqnBOjjaravJO qoB3 o; euptpera JO ^800 eSBaaAy -aes JO ;803 oSsjaAy '1991 I9d OO-^O 00 00 r-<_Tj< CO CO (M •uo|:^diJ0B9jd qo«9 JO ^900 eSwaAy qo83 o:^ "o^ eJ^aiaAy •Buoijduosajd JO aaqranu eioq^ •peAeijaj jo paino paSanqosip leqtan^ •gq}«9p JO jaquin^ •l«:)ldsoq o^ rjuag jaqniTiij (MOrHCOOS O CO (M OS " t-00-*iCO5 t- O J 1 2 •• s Oi r~l -^ Oi a3 -' (D (D O C cl ^ ts ^ « ^ ""^ ^ o 2 .tf 'S i3 ^ § a a * S 2>^ |)SSS^« Sol ^ ® ® <» t- eS tz >■ kT ft! bU (O > JS 454 HUMANITARIAN AND CORRECTIVE INSTITUTIONS. In Brooklyn there are now five city dis- pensaries, having a competent corps of dis- trict physicians. There is also an eye and ear infirmary, at which persons sutfering with diseases of these organs are pre- scribed for gratuitously, a dental infirmary, two homoeopathic, and an eclectic dispen- sary. Baltimore has two dispensaries or infirm- aries ; Cincinnati, Chicago, St. Louis, New Orleans, and Charleston, as well as some other smaller cities, one or more. Besides these institutions, there are in connection with nearly all the medical schools in the large cities, cliniques, at which, at a given hour, once, twice, or thrice a week, patients are prescribed for gratuitously by the professors, in order to familiarize the students with the practical diagnosis of dis- ease. Some of the medical schools have hospitals, with quite a number of free beds, for the same purpose. We insert a table showing the annual amount of medical service rendered by the dispensaries of New York and Boston in 1860, and the small cost at which so large an amount of good was accomplished. CHAPTER YI. NURSERIES AND FOUNDLING HOSPITALS. There has been a strong prejudice in this country against foundling hospitals, mainly undoubtedly the result of the mismanage- naent which formerly prevailed, and, to some extent, still prevails in some of the great European hospitals for foundlings. They have been stigmatized as offering a premium for licentiousness, and destroying the barri- ers against illegitimate births. On the other hand, it has been urged in their favor, that they tend to prevent infanticide and those crimes so prevalent in communities where no such institutions exist. After long delib- eration, the public authorities of New York have decided in favor of a foundling hospital, which will be the first in this country. Provision has been made for many years past for the care of the young children of criminals, and of paupers deceased, or inca- pable of taking care of them, in all our large cities. The usual method, if they are in- fants, is to put them out to nurse until they are three or four years of age, the city pay- ing a dollar a week or thereabout to the nurse. In many cases, those who have thus taken charge of them were utterly unfit for their duty, and painful instances of cruelty and maltreatment of these unfortunate children have come to light. Closer scrutiny is now exercised in regard to the character and po- sition of those who apply for employment as nurses, and the abuses are measurably checked. If the children survive the nurs- ing period, they are placed together in a public nursery or farm school, and there re- ceive a good English education, and are then apprenticed or adopted in families in the country, or, in some instances, sent to sea. The neglect and evil results which in many instances followed from the course pursued in these institutions, as well as the conviction that the infant children of vir- tuous parents, who were deprived of their parents' care by death or extreme poverty, were entitled to a tenderer watchfulness and supervision, has led in most of the large cities to the establishment of nurseries, in- fants' homes, and other institutions of a sim- ilar character, for children of this class. The "homes for the friendless," a class of insti- tutions we have elsewhere described, have received very considerable numbers of these children, and after carefully rearing them, have provided them with good homes, where they have been adopted by those who re- ceived them. There are also in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, hospitals for in- fants of legitimate birth. An institution much needed in all our large cities, and which has just been established in Boston, is the creche^ now very popular in most of the European cities. It is a large building, with fine, airy, well-ventilated rooms, fitted up with cradles, toys, and every thing necessary for the care and amusement of infants and young children, and provided with a suflSci- ent number of amiable and intelligent nurses, where the poor mother, whose daily toil sus- tains her little flock, may leave them for the day, certain that they will be well cared for, and receive wholesome food and pure air. For this care she pays a trifling sum, grad- uated to her ability. CHAPTER Vn. HOMES AND ASYLUMS FOR THE AGED AND INFIRM. From tne care of children who have been bereft of a parent's tender love, to the pro- HOMES AND ASYLUMS FOR THK AGED AND INFIRM. 455 vision for those whom the burden of years and infirmity has reduced to an almost childish feebleness, seems a natural transi- tion. For this class, and especially for women who in the time of old age find themselves without those who can minister to their wants, and to whom the almshouse seems almost as terrible as the grave, the large-hearted charity of the philanthropic in most of our cities, has made liberal provision. New York has seven institutions for this class, besides several relief societies intended main- ly for them ; Boston three or four, one of them largely endowed ; Philadelphia four ; Brook- lyn three, one, the Graham Home, nobly endowed by one of her citizens ; Baltimore two ; and the other larger cities one or two each. In Boston and Philadelphia there are also institutions for aged clergymen, mer- chants, and others. New York has an asy- lum for infirm seamen, the Sailor's Snug Harbor, located on Staten Island, and found- ed and amply endowed by the munificence of a retired sea captain, Robert R. Randall. > Provision has been made in most of the Northern cities for children, the aged and infirm, and the sick of the African race, in separate institutions, but with accommo- dations fully equal to those provided for whites. 456 TABLES OF POPULATION. TABLE OF THE POPULATION, VALUATION OP REAL AND PERSONAL ESTATE, CAPITAL INVESTED IN MANUFACTURES, TRADE, AND COMMERCE IN lACH OP THB STATES OP THE UNION. 5^="M., manufacturing capital ; T., capital employed in trade ; C, capital employed in commerce by land and sea. The valuations are generally actual, and not assessment Taluation. If not correct, they are from the best data and au- thority available. Maine New Hampshire. ... Vermont , Massachusetts , Rhode Island Connecticut New York. New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Maryland Virginia West Virginia , North Carolina , South Carolina Georgia Florida Alabama Mississippi , Louisiana Texas Arkansas Tennessee Kentucky Ohio Indiana Illinois Missouri Kansas Nebraska Iowa Michigan , Wisconsin Minnesota Nevada , California Oregon District of Columbia, Territories Population by census of 1870. 620,423 317,710 330,582 1,457,351 217,356 537,886 4,730,846 903,044 8,511,543 175,015 790,095 1,211,442 441,943 1,016,954 705,789 1,174 836 189,995 996,175 843,056 734,420 795,500 486,103 1,258,326 1,323,264 2,675,468 1,668,169 2,567,036 1,725,658 379,497 116,888 1,181,359 1,184,653 1,055,501 424,543 44,686 556,208 90,878 131,706 298,327 88,881,231 Valuation of real estate in 1870. i$219,666,504 160,315,680 138,627,143 1,038,083,415 233,758,000 312,574,408 2,532,720,907 573,000,000 1,046,732,062 47,385,614 398,891,449 885,000,000 98,780,000 293,837,993 358,785,191 386,129,231 16,329,106 327,500,000 167,000,000 317,612,583 298,163,281 86,297,123 276,163,137 329,218,742 1,607,418,203 937,201,283 1,346,587,734 805,893,165 69,125,000 24,160,000 322,561,061 387,246,129 360,000,000 171,155,000 19,360,000 217,855,933 29,830,117 83,127,841 79,184,821 Valuation of per- sonal estate in 1870. $169,037,423 128,711,143 85,744,627 803,085,988 55,483,713 135,380,750 2,434,270,278 278,000,000 346,891,498 20,185,693 327,937,008 85,000,000 41,000,000 188,931,290 219,681,837 267,825,641 15,447,680 125,500,000 49,380,000 294,861,247 159,328,216 127,261,326 168,237,191 271,864.165 959,762,252 867,130,625 342,407,041 497,487,635 31,285,000 30,895,796 171,971,191 183,284,721 138,000,000 29,387,000 14,287,000 128,725,471 19,187,323 49,287,605 62,829,613 Capital invested in tures, trade, or commerce 1870. M, M, M, M, M, M, C&M, M, C&M, M, M&C, M&T, C, M, M&T, M&T, M&C, M&C, M&T, C, M&T, M&T, M&T, T, C, ol C&M, T, M, M&C, C&M, M, M, M, ■ C&M, M, M&T, $48,000,000 53,500,000 37,823,000 250,000,000 45,000,000 166,800,000 3,200,000,000 135,000,000 1,320,000,000 16,550,000 117,500,000 86,230,000 28,000,000 15,000 000 35,500,000 51,325,000 13,000,000 45,000,000 21,300,000 48.000,000 27,480,000 13,287,000 79,500,000 256,000,000 2,300,000,000 1,400,000,000 2,000,000,000 1,729,000,000 114,000,000 6,600,000 825,000,000 887,642,000 32,000,000 14,831,000 3,925,000 150,000,000 11,350,000 19,270,000 21,362,000 TABLE OF PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THB UNITED STATES, SHOWING POPULATION IN 1850, 1860, AND 1870, CAPITAL INVESTED IN MANUPACTURXS, AND AMOUNT OP ANNUAL PRODUCT IN OR NEAR 1870. Portland Bangor Lewiston .... Biddeford Augusta Manchester . , Nashua Portsmouth.. Concord Dover Burlington. . . Boston Lowell Worcester . . . Salem Cambridge ... New Bedford. Fall River . . . Springfield... Charlestown . Newbury port Taunton Lynn Gloucester. . . State. Maine. Vt Mass. Population in 1850. 20,815 14,432 3,584 6,095 8,225 13,932 5,820 9,738 8,576 8,196 6,110 136,881 33,388 17.049 20,264 15,215 16,443 11,524 11,766 17,216 9,572 10,441 14,257 7J86 Population in 1860. 26,341 16,407 7,609 20,109 10,065 9,33'> 10,896 8,802 7,713 177,812 22,252 26,060 22,300 14,026 16,199 25,063 13,401 16,376 19,088 10,904 Population in 1870. 80,877 18,296 13,600 10,286 7,811 23,536 10,543 9,305 12,241 9,294 14,387 260,525 40,928 41,105 24,117 39,634 21,320 26,786 26,70:1 28,323 13,595 18,629 28,233 16,389 Capital invest- ed in manu- &ctures in or near 1870. $^,500,000 6,800,000 6,3 )0,000 3,000,000 5,000,000 9,640,000 6,l(i0,000 1,500,000 6,700,000 3,200,<)00 1,725.000 42,000,000 30,000,000 8,800,000 3,500,000 6,000,000 24,000,000 13,400,000 8,350,000 7,100,000 2,750,000 8,950,000 10,250,000 1,760,000 Annual pro- duct. $13,300,000 12,000,000 11,500,000 7,000,000 10,500,000 19,970,000 12,350,000 8,200,000 10,500,000 5,800,000 4,869,000 105,000,000 89,000,000 26,000,000 9,875,000 14,000,000 37.000,000 29,500,000 17.284,000 15,250,000 6,000,000 19,676,000 16,187,350 4,226,000 TABLES OF POPULATION. 457 TABLE OF PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES.—Continukd. Holyoke Lawrence Providence Newport New Haven.... Hartford . . Bridgeport Norwich Middletown.. .. New London. . . Waterbury Meriden New York Brooklyn Buffalo Albany Rochester Syracuse Troy Yonkers Oswego Hudson Utica Binghamton . . . Morrisania Poughkeepsie . . Cohoes Newburgh Elmira Lockport Schenectady. . . Auburn Ogdensburg.. .. Newark Jersey City. . . . Elizabeth Paterson Hoboken Rahway , Trenton New Brunswick. Camden , Hudson City. . . Philadelphia. . . Pittsburgh Alleghany City. Scranton Reading Harrisburg Erie Lancaster Wilmington. . . . Baltimore Cumberland . . . Frederick Washington Georgetown Richmond Alexandria . Norfolk Portsmouth . . . Petersburg Lynchburg Wheeling Wilmington Raleigh New-Berne Charleston Columbia Savannah Atlanta Augusta Key West Mobile Montgomery. . . Natchez Vicksburg New Orleans. . . Galveston .... Little Rock Memphis Nashville Knoxville State. Mass. E. L Conn^ N. Y. N. J. Pa. DeL Md. D.p. Va. W. Va. N. C. S. C. Oa. Fla. Ala. La. Texas. Ark. Tenn. Population in 1850. 8,245 8.282 4i;513 13,555 7,560 10,265 4,211 8,991 5,137 3,559 515,547 96,838 42,261 50,763 36,403 22,271 28,785 4,160 12,235 6,286 17,565 5,000 13,944 4.229 11,415 8,166 10,327 8,921 9,548 6,500 38,894 6,856 5,583 11,334 2,668 10,019 9,479 340,045 46,601 21,261 15,7 7,8 5,858 12,369 13,979 169,054 6,073 6,028 40,001 8,366 27,570 8,734 14,326 8,122 14,010 8,071 11,435 7,264 4,518 4,681 42,985 6,060 15,312 2,572 11,753 1,943 20,515 4,935 4,434 8,678 116,875 4,177 2,167 8,889 10,478 Population m 1860. Population in 1870. 50,666 10,508 29,154 13,555 14,048 10,115 805,651 266,661 81,129 62,367 48,204 28,119 39,232 11,848 16,817 9,288 22,529 8 r- 9,245 14,726 7,' 15,196 8,882 13,533 9,579 10,986 7,409 71,914 29,226 10,000 19,588 9,662 4,785 17,228 12,150 11,267 49,217 28,702 23,161 13.405 9;419 17,603 25,608 212,418 8,143 61,122 8,733 87,910 12,652 15,611 9,502 18,266 6,853 14,083 9,552 4,780 5,432 40,522 8,059 22,292 9,554 12,493 Capital invest- ed in manu- factures in or near 1870. 8,843 6,612 4,591 168,675 7,307 8,727 22,623 16,988 6,000 11,000 28,921 68.906 12,521 50,840 37,180 19,87 16,653 11,143 9,576 10 826 10,5: 942,310 398,300 117,715 69,422 62,385 43,058 46,471 18,318 20,910 14,135 28,804 12,862 19,637 20,080 15,357 17,014 15,863 15,458 11,026 17,225 10,076 105,078 82,102 20,383 33,512 20,284 6,016 22,115 15,059 20,045 18,000 674,022 86,235 53,181 20,500 20,233 80,841 267,354 11,500 10,180 109,294 12,412 61,038 13,570 19,256 12,678 14,128 7,319 19,282 13,465 10,146 4,996 48,956 10,139 20,233 16,988 14,197 6,510 32,084 13,065 9,128 8,963 191,322 13,818 13,380 40,226 25.872 9,000 $7,185,000 20,000.000 11,837,548 1,500,000 12,715,000 13,500,000 5,125,000 7,675,000 1,775,000 2,500,000 8.125,000 2,784,000 179.525,000 65,500,000 27,965,000 18,260,000 15,000,000 11,871,500 9,000,000 1,250,000 5,108,000 1,125,000 6,225,000 2,725,000 3,184,000 4,932,000 5,550,000 3,725,000 6,817,000 2,166,000 1,125,000 5,075,000 3,187,500 25,500,000 18,650,000 1,725,000 17,150,000 3,360,000 650,000 7,180,000 2,785,000 5,660,000 460,000 178,000,000 69,250,000 21.300,000 2,917,000 9,755,000 6,126,000 1,600,000 3,900,000 11,500,000 27,480,000 400,000 876,000 3,160,000 1,000,000 2,100,000 3,125,000 2,087,500 1,499,350 500,000 350,000 6,150,280 975,000 400,000 250,000 1,850,000 1,015,250 500,000 1,325,000 675,000 550,000 8,618,000 500,000 275,000 729.000 19,750,000 850,000 300,000 1,639,000 1,171,450 600,000 Annual pro- duct. $13,267,000 35,000,000 33,690,994 3,275,000 32,000,000 31,300,000 17,500,000 18,250,000 4,000,000 4,865,000 19,385,000 8,500,000 486.125,000 140,225,000 62,835,000 41,375,000 28,000 000 29,627,000 20,000,000 3,100,000 13,187,000 2,750,000 14,861,000 5,895,000 7,196,000 10,287,000 11,250,000 7,810,000 14,271,000 5,126,000 2,789,000 12,173,000 7,785,000 53,628,000 35,760,000 2,860,000 38,525,000 8,200,000 1,650,000 15,125,000 5,875,000 12,175,000 1,760,000 495,000,000 141,600,000 54,380,000 6,285,000 38,124,000 13,250,000 4,600,000 9,728,000 18,000,000 79,169.000 2,600;000 2,100,000 10,287,000 2,660,000 5,183,000 8,749,600 6,964,260 3,748,140 1,150,600 975,600 14,297,340 2,600,000 1,100,000 726,000 3,950,000 2,416,980 1,100,000 3,145,000 1,497,500 1,328,500 9,145,320 3,000,000 785,300 1,541,870 68,650,000 2,100,000 850,000 8,741,500 2,763,521 980,000 458 TABLES OF POPULATION. TABLE OF PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES.— Conthtuid. Louisrille. . . . CoTington.. ., Lexington.... St. Louis,.,.. Kansas City.. St. Joseph, . . Hannibal. . . . Leayen worth. Topeka Dayenport , . . . Dubuque Des Moines.... Keokuk Muscatine Council Bluffs. Burlington . . . Chicago Peoria Quincy Sprin^^eld Alton Galena Pekin Rock Island.. . Cairo Indianapolis . . EransTille .... Terre Haute., . Fort Wayne.. . New Albany. . . Lafoyette Madison Richmond .... Logansport.. . , Cincinnati . . . . , Cleyeland Toledo Columbus Dayton , Sandusky , Springfield Hamilton Portsmouth. , . , Steubenville , . . ZanesTille Akron , Detroit Grand Rapids. . Jackson Kalamazoo East Saginaw.. . Adrian Milwaukie Madison Oshkosh Superior City. . Fond du Lac. . . Green Bay Racine Janesville St. Paul Winona St. Anthony . . . Minneapolis. ... Denver Cheyenne Salt Lake City.. Carson City . . . . Virginia City... San Francisco.. Sacramento .. .. Stockton , Oakland Portland Steilacoom Olympia Santa Fe Tucson Boise City Helena Virginia City. . . Tanckton State. Ky. Mo. Kan. Neb. Iowa. Population in 1850. 111. Ind. Ohio, Mich. Wis. Col. Wyoming. Utah. Ner. Cal. Oregon. Wash. T. (( New Mex, Arizona T. Idaho, Montana. Dakota. 43,194 9,408 9,130 77,860 600 5,000 2,020 1,848 3,108 986 2,478 2,540 2,000 4,082 29.963 6,095 6,902 11,766 Population in 1860. 6,004 1,678 1,711 242 8,034 8,235 4,051 4,282 1,215 8,012 1,443 3,500 115,438 17,034 3.829 17,882 10,970 10,000 7,314 3,210 4,011 6,144 7,929 3,266 21,019 3,147 4,147 3,284 500 3,006 20,061 3,400 2,500 2,014 1,923 5,107 8,451 1. 8,000 84,776 12,000 3,000 4,846 16,471 9,621 160,773 4,418 8,932 6,505 7,429 769 1,883 11,267 13,000 3,935 8,136 5,324 2,011 6,706 109,260 14,046 13,632 16,199 7,388 8,193 3,467 5,130 2,188 18,611 11,484 8.594 10,388 12,647 9,387 9,068 6,603 2,979 161,044 43,417 13,796 18,692 20,081 9,316 7,007 7,227 6,273 6,157 9,232 3,520 45,619 8,085 4,799 6,070 3,001 6,213 45,246 6,611 6,086 584 5,450 2,275 7,822 7.703 10,401 2,464 g, — 2,564 4,749 Population in 1870. 8,236 714 2,345 66,802 13,786 8,679 1,643 2,874 4,635 1.034 100,764 24,506 10,121 312,963 32,362 19,692 10,120 17,849 5,790 16,083 20,042 18,084 12,379 12,754 10,178 10,974 12,034 26,787 24,063 17,365 10,353 10,030 9,310 7,r- 8,267 41,603 21,830 17,105 17,766 16,205 14.312 10;709 9,443 8,950 218,900 93,918 31,692 31,336 30,867 14,628 12,656 11,105 10,522 10,207 10,013 10,010 79,588 16,507 11,448 9,1S0 11,349 8,448 71.499 13,000 12,675 1,100 12,771 4, 9, 8,791 20,646 10.000 6,000 16,000 9,600 4,500 24,500 4,875 7,' 168,361 16,484 8,826 6,740 Capital invest ed in manu foctures in or near 1870 3,800 1,500 5,600 8,000 4,800 8,900 8,700 6.800 $16,313,000 4,296,500 600,000 48,387,150 3,174,125 1,675,325 1,000,000 1,800,000 400,000 1,300,000 2,426,000 1,470,000 925,000 850,000 1,125,000 1,050,000 60,000,000 4,105,000 3,072,500 1,980,300 1,147,618 2,261,419 1,743,200 1,864,325 1,460,000 4,160,600 2,745,200 1,993,660 1,871.000 2,343,750 820,000 1,361,000 2,628,136 1,961,822 58,340,686 44,000,000 6,250,000 8,325,000 6,240,326 2,116,687 3,000,000 4,128,675 1,817,340 2,106,150 2,819,326 2,587,640 18,330,000 2,725,000 1,976,500 1,762,000 2,568,000 1,843,500 11,275,000 2,193,780 Annual pro- duct. 650,000 425,000 879,000 1,312,250 250,000 675,600 1^5,000 850,000 550,000 1,600,000 200,000 450,000 28,500,000 1,245,000 250,000 270,000 1,296,000 121,600 50,000 110,000 160,000 186,000 370,000 926,000 225,000 $40,091,745 10,825,960 1,725,000 109,513,950 8,125,450 4,075,425 2,300,000 3,270,000 900,000 * 3.5bb*,666 3,794,000 3,100,000 2,084,000 1,975,000 2,485,000 2,355,420 175,000,000 11,186,325 8,740,200 3,618,500 2,831,460 4,843,288 3,877,250 3,987,420 2,963,200 11 266,360 7,189,150 4,185,240 4,622,175 4,918,225 2,006,150 3,108,270 6,815,281 3,934,186 159,270,049 127,375,600 14,128,500 19,875,000 14,371,225 4,962,180 5,200,000 12,006,155 4,361,285 5,210,265 6,173,124 6,031,240 52,185,000 5,918,000 4,128,000 3,740,500 7 061,000 4,163,000 28,645,000 4,286,000 * iim,m ""m,m ' 2,185",666 3,180,000 722,000 1,807,833 3,980,500 1,795,000 1,600,000 4,280,000 450,000 860,000 71,450,000 3,780,000 700,000 800,000 2,752,000 306,000 150,000 280,000 470,000 500,000 809.000 2,600,000 560,000 TABLES OF POPULATION. 459 fe|SS;2;S^8 S S8S?Sggi| | g" SS lOgO(M rH g S^Ts^" lii i ii i S S S2 Si '^ SJ 55 S3 23 S? 2? "3 eo ■* eo o s© ■<4< ri ■<»< c eo CO O b- CO »00' ill t S S CSS s gss « 3 o"«oco" g •<*'arr 00 i^»d^it- JS22R; s i§ § i S :i s. IS ^"S5 : : III I : : S!2;S5 I III rtUO 55 fclZ5»5S5>' !Z5 55)25 QQCS - a • ^ .2 .2 -S fl : < HUJoooSSrt a ^ S^ .5fe < s-S 2« 111 ^ 5.^0 .2 S I I- S'gil II NoTK.— The year 1815 and the periods earlier than 1790 are taken from State enumerations, and from other sources of information. * Population of the settlement. t State census of 1852. t Errors were made in Boston and New Orleans in 1840, underestimating the population in the first city, as prored by Mr. Shattuck, to the extent of about SfiOQ ; aod OTerestimatiiig it in New Orleans, as proTed by Dr. Barton, by at least 10 000 or 15,000. APPENDIX. MARVELS WHICH OUR GRANDCHILDREN WHiL SEE, OE, ' ONE HUHDRED YEARS' PROGRESS IN THE FUTURE. — BEINCI — A View of tlie Prospective Increase of Population of the United States in each Decade for a Hundred Years to come ; the Wonderful Development of all branches of Industry and Enterprise, giving the Aggregate of Wealth for each Decade, Eapid Growth of Cities, Great Development of Commerce and Internal Trade, and of Means of Communication by Eail, Steamers, and Telegraph ; Ee- markable Advance in Education, Literature, Fine Arts, and Luxuries of Life ; Crushing Influence of Individual and Corporative Monopolies ; Impending Con- flict between Capital and Labor; Increase of Protective Unions; Acquisition of Territory \ Exhaustion of Public Lands ; Advance of Eeal Estate beyond the Means of the Poor. All deduced from the Facts and Figures of the past One Hunared Years ' Progress in this Country. WITH REFLECTIONS On the Social, Political, and Eeligious Changes which will ensue from the Transference of the Governing Power from the Anglo-Saxon race to the admix- ture of the Teutonic, Celtic, and Scandinavian peoples of Europe, and the Mongo- lian, Malay, and African races, which are destined to form so large a portion of its Population — with Examples from Ancient and Modern History of the Effect of such Changes in the Past. 463 MAEYELS, &c. ESTIMATED POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES FOR TEN DECADES TO COME. In the preceding pages we have traced the growth of our nation from its infancy, from the time, now one hundred years ago, when, after the losses of the second French war, and the general poverty and depression which followed, less than two millions of people occupied the territory of the present Atlantic States and half a dozen years later proclaimed themselves " the people of the United States, free and independent." We have followed their growth, step by step, in population, till they now number over forty millions of free and independent citizens, surpassing in num- bers the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, of which they were thea feeble colonies; surpassing in population France, which then stooped down from its powerful position, to lend them a helping hand ; sur- passing Italy, Spain, Prussia, and Austria, and inferior in the number of their people only to their great ally, Russia, among the nations of Christendom. We have followed, too, with ever-increasing interest, their advance in agriculture as they have hewed out homes for themselves in the wilderness, subdued the igantic forests, reduced the vast prairies to ruitful fields, and made the desert to bud and blossom with the waving grains and abundant flowers; we have watched the growth of their commerce, till their sails whitened every sea, and their strong keels vexed even the icy waters that gather round the Northern and the Southern poles. We have8een,from the humblest beginnings, those great manufactories spring up, which give employment to so many myriads of our peo- ple, and include in their production almost every thing which the human hand can use, or the human heart can crave ; we have looked down into those dark depths which the sun's light never penetrates, and have witnessed the unearthing of the hidden treas- ures which the earth's green mantle conceals ; the vast stores of fuel reserved for the needs t of our own and other days; th« immense quantities of iron ores which now yield an- nually almost two thousand million tuns of that valuable metal ; the copper, the lead, the zinc, the quicksilver, the silver, the gold, and the platinum, whose abundance has changed the value of money, the world over, within the past twenty years ; the quarries, from whose depths conie the walls of our city palaces and many of our rural homes. We have watched the great foundries, machine shops, and rolling mills, where ponderous machines, huge locomotive and stationary engines, iron bridges and buildings, and the rails for the railway, the wheels for its cars, and the machinery for its construction and repair, are wrought out, and have compared these with the little roadside blacksmiths' shops of our fathers. We have followed the methods of travel and transportation, from the days of the slow- moving ox-cart, and the venerable and aris- tocratic " one-horse-shay," to the mail wagon, the canal packet, the two or four-horse stage coach, the railway train, and the steam- ship, until we have seen the long trains leav- ing our Atlantic cities and without change landing their passengers a week later at Sacra- mento, there to connect with the steamships which plough across the great Pacific for China or Japan, as the returning passengers would do at New York with the European steamers. Nor has the advance in literature, science, art or religion been less remarkable ; our au- thors, our scholars, our physicists, our paint- ers, sculptors and architects, our musicians and our preachers, are the peers of those of any nation of the world, and the principles of Christianity and of a pure morality are taught and practiced as carefully as among any people on the globe. A nation whose growth, during the first hundred years of its history, has been so vig- orous and rapid, and its progress so unprece- dented in all that constitutes national pros- 464 APPENDIX. perity, can not but have before it a grand and glorious future ; it is as yet but in the fresh- ness of its youth, for nations count their age not by years like individuals, but by decades and centuries. Let us then turn our eyes to the future of this people and endeavor, calmly and without extravagance, to predict their future for a hundred ' years to come. The historian, rea- soning of things to come and predicating the events of the future upon the facts of the past, is a historian still, and not a prophet or mere theorist in the descriptions of the things which shall be, when he bases them upon the things which are. It will be our aim to de- duce our history of the future strictly from the facts of the past. Let us then consider first the Population of the Country for the next hundred years. We are accustomed to talk of this in a loose way, and speak often of the hundred millions of people who will find their homes in the United States at the beginning of the twen- tieth century, and the guess is not so far out of the way ; but very few have ever at- tempted to go beyond A. D. 1900 in their estimates of our future population, and even of those who have made vague estimates of the number of inhabitants at that time, not more than one or two have carefully consid- ered all the influences which have a bearing on the true solution of the problem. The ratio of increase in each decade since 1790, when our first national census was taken, has been : from 1790 to 1800, 35.02 percent.; from 1800 to 1810, 36.45 percent.; from 1810 to 1820, 33.13 per cent. ; from 1820 to 1830, 33.49 per cent. ; from 1830 to 1840, 32.67 per cent.; from 1840 to 1850, 38.57 per cent. ; from 1850 to 1860, 37.75 per cent., or an average ratio for each decade of the past seventy years of 34.58 per cent. It is noteworthy that the lowest per centage was between 1830 and 1840, before the tide of immigration had fairly set in, and that the ratio of increase of the last two decades has been but little more than that of the first two. Will this ratio of increase continue in the future? The question is one of great im- portance, and there are many considerations to be weighed before a correct decision can be made. In favor of its continuance or increase may be urged, 1st, the constantly-increasing rate of immigration to the United States. The average immigration for the ten years 1855- 1865 was but 165,000 a year; in 1866 the number of immigrants was 318,554 ; in 1867, 298,358; in 1868, 297,215; in 1869, 352,- 569. If we take account of the immigrants who came here between 1820 and 1860, we find that the annual arrivals averaged only 126,000. Of those who emigrated hither up to 1865, nearly three-fifths were from the British Isles, and almost one-half from Ire- land. The emigration from Germany has been gradually increasing for twenty-five years past, and in the year ending June 30, ; 1869, exceeded, as it will be certain to do hereafter, that from the British Isles ; the number of Germans arriving being 132,537, or nearly two-fifths ; English and Scotch, 60,286 ; Irish, 64,938. The Swedes and Norwegians exceeded 45,000, and the emi- gration from these countries is rapidly and largely on the increase. But the immigra- tion to the Pacific coast from China, Japan, India, and the Malay countries, is destined to exceed vastly that from Europe. Amounting to about 13,000 in the year ending June 30, 1869, it is likely to quadruple in the year ending June 30, 1870, and in the ten years 1870-1880 will hardly fall below five mill- ions. The emigration of five millions of people from any one of the countries of Europe in ten years would so diminish the number of producers as to force up the price of wages to a point which would check and possibly forbid emigration, and therefore we can hardly expect the European emigration to exceed four or five millions (it has never yet exceeded two millions) within ten years' time. But the emigration from China, Japan, India and Malaysia is controlled by no such law. The population of these countries is, in round numbers: China, 400 millions; Japan, 50 millions ; India and Farther India, 200 millions, and Malaysia at least 100 mill- ions more — making, in all, 750 millions. Of these, more than two-thirds are very poor, though at the same time very industrious ; and under the arrangements now making or which will soon be made, the immigration of fifty millions of them to our shores within the next twenty years, will only relieve mod- erately the poverty of those who remain, while there will be ample opportunity for those who come to obtain a better living than they could possibly have obtained in those countries. 2. The vast extent of land as yet unoccu- pied is favorable to the rapid natural inci^as« APPENDIX. 465 of the population. In a new country, the births are more numerous and the children more vigorous than in older and more densely inhabited countries, and in general the prog- eny of the poor and laboring classes are more numerous than those of the rich. In a new- ly settled country, too, marriage usually takes place earlier, (where the disparity in the num- bers of the two sexes is not too great,) and is usually more prolific. 3. There is a strong probability, almost a certainty, of the annexation of British Co- lumbia, Canada, and probably also a part or the whole of Mexico, Central America, and the most important islands of the West In- dies, before the close of the present century. The aggregate population of these countries would be fifteen or sixteen milHons — an im- portant addition at present^ though a very trifling one if deferred for a hundred years. But these additions are not of moment only for the additions they will make directly to our population, but for the vast tracts of un- inhabited or sparsely-inhabited territory they will add to us ; much of it a rich and highly productive soil yet to be redeemed from its original condition. Much of this territory, and particularly Mexico, Central America, and British Columbia, is rich in both mineral and vegetable wealth. Gold, silver, quick- silver, iron, copper, zinc, and probably tin, abound in almost all parts of it. There are vast deposits of coal, and quarries of superior building stone. The immense forests of Brit- ish Columbia and of some portions of Mexico will furnish timber, lumber and fuel for ages. These considerations all favor a rapid growth of population, and sustain the position that the ratio of growth will be an increasing rather than a diminishing one. 4. The great and constantly-increasing fa- cilities of travel throughout all portions of the country tend to increase the ratio of growth of population. While the American Anglo-Saxons, those of our citizens whose homes have been on this continent for three or more generations, are inclined to congre- gate in the large cities, and the Celtic races to a very considerable extent manifest the same tendency, all the Teutonic and Scandi- navian immigrants are full of the desire to buy land — to have a home of their own. The Japanese and most of the Chinese have the same disposition. Whatever means of trans- portation afford an easy and speedy transit to the new lands of the interior will greatly facilitate the growth of the population. 5. There is no probability of any widely- desolating war in this country, certainly for the next fifty years. State sovereignty and Slavery were both settled forever by our late war, and there is no other conceivable cause for another civil war. That one is likely to be fomented on religious questions, no one who has studied the future of the country can believe for a moment. A war with England or France might be possible, but hardly prob- able, and should it occur, though it might occasion loss of property from the blockading or possible bombardment of some of our ports, it could hardly make much difference with our population, and in the case of En- gland would end in our possessing the entire territory now subject to that power on this continent. No other power could maintain war with us to any extent which would injure us. The loss of life due to a great war makes itself felt under ordinary circumstances for two or three decades, in the census ; and where there is no immigration to make good the loss, materially reduces the ratio of in- crease. In France the great wars of the first fifteen years of the present century, and the drain which they made on the youth of the nation, being counterbalanced by no immi- gration, has hardly yet ceased to show its eff'ect on the census ; the increase of popu- lation being only from 3 to 5 per cent, in ten years, or only about one-tenth of ours. There can be no question that the late war has slightly diminished our ratio of increase from 1860 to 1870, but owing to the great influx by immigration consequent upon our impro- ved national condition, this diminution will be comparatively slight. The improbability of any desolating war is an important item in the rapidity of our national growth in the future, for war, aside from its immediate de- structive effect, deranges commerce, injures and often revolutionizes manufactures, and to some extent paralyzes all the ordinaiy industries. We can not predict with any certainty that there will be no visitations of sweeping epi- demics ; these are always liable to occur ; but the laws of health and the control of epi- demics are so much better understood now than formerly, that we may safely conclude that if they occur they will not make such havoc with our population as has been made in former times and in other countries ; and there is, besides, a law of nature in regard to epidemics, which does not exist in regard to other losses of population. The number of 466 APPENDIX. deaths, in a well regulated and intelligent community, during the prevalence of an epi- demic, (cholera, for instance,) is not mate- rially greater than in other years, the epi- demic apparently swallowing up most other disorders, and the number of fatal cases from them being nearly as much less as those from the cholera is greater. There is, too, a law of compensation, in the marked increase in the number of births in an epidemic year. There is, it is true, a loss ; for those who die are mostly adults, and those who make up their place and number are infants ; but the aggregate number of births and deaths bear about the usual proportion to each other. But, on the other hand, there are reasons why the ratio should be a decreasing or sta- tionary one. Among these are : the aggre- gation of wealth in comparatively few hands, leaving the middle class small in numbers, and the dependent or laboring class large, and probably eventually very poor. This would tend to diminish the ratio of increase in the population, since, though the births may be proportionately more numerous than now, the number of deaths at one year old and under will also be greater. The monopo- lizing of the land in large estates, to which there is a strong tendency, will have a some- what similar effect, though it will not mani- fest itself quite so soon. Again, as the pop- ulation becomes more dense, the mortality increases from a variety of causes, such as vicious habits, crime, hereditary tainting of the blood, epidemics, foul air, starvation or defective nutrition, &c. &c. The laws of health are now so much better understood than formerly, that these causes do not exert I so powerful an influence as they would have done, a hundred or even fifty years ago ; bn| they must to some extent diminish the ratio of increase of the population. The intense excitability and tendency to overwork of the people of the United States, partly the effect of temperament and partly of climate, short- ens the duration of human life and hence diminishes the growth of the population. The excessive use of alcoholic liquors, tobacco and opium, and licentious indulgence, exert a powerful influence in the same direction. We have considered with great care these various influences and their effect upon the increase of the population, and in order to be on the safe side and underestimate rather than overestimate the growth of the nation, have made our tables of the population of each decade of the next hundred years, on a constantly though slowly decreasing ratio. We have in these estimates made no account of any accessions to our territory or to our population by annexation, for the obvious reason that it is impossible to say when such accessions would occur, and equally impos- sible to predict whether they would result, for some time after their annexation, in an increase or diminution of the population. The ratio of increase from 1850 to 1860 was, as we have already said, 37.75 per cent. But for the civil war, the ratio between 1 860 and 1870 must have been considerably greater than this, in consequence of the great in- crease of immigration ; but this disturbing cause must be taken into the account ; and we believe we are making a sufiicient allow- ance for it in reducing the ratio to 23.4 per cent. This makes the population in 1870, 38,905,258 The ratio from 1870 to 1880 we have put at 34 per cent, though we believe it will exceed that. This would give for the popu- lation in 1880, in round members, 52,132,000 Still diminishing the ratio of increase, we make it from 1880 to 1890, 33 per cent., which would make the population of 1890, 69,335,000 From 1890 to 1900 our ratio is 32 per cent., making the popu- lation in 1900, 91,522,000 From 1900 to 1910 we have assumed 31 per cent, as the ratio. This gives for the population in 1910, 119,893,000 For the decade 1910 to 1920, the ratio is farther decreased to 30 per cent., giving a population in 1920 of 155,860,000 From 1920 to 1930, the ratio is 29 per cent., and the population of the census of 1930 would be 201,059,000 From 1930 to 1940, the proposed ratio is 27 per cent., making the population of 1940, 255,444,000 From 1940 to 1950, we make a reduction of one per cent, in the ratio, giving it as 25 per cent., by which rate of increase the population of 1950 would be 319,305,000 APPENDIX. 467 From 1950 to 1 960, a further reduction of the ratio to 23 per cent., gives a population in 1960 of 391,755,000 From 1960 to 1970, the increase is estimated on a ratio of 21 per cent., giving a population in 1970 of 474 011000 Doubtless the public will be astonished at the result of our figures, tbey would be equally so should we cast the interest at compound on a thousand dollars for one hundred years. It may be said that emi- gration, a great source of increase, will not continue in the same ratio. The average percentage of in- crease for the four decades from 1830 to 1870, is 33 per cent, per decade. The average for the four last decades, estimated from 1930 to 1970, is 25 per cent, per decade, the former being 37 per cent, larger while the increase from emigration in the past forty years, has been only about 25 per cent, of the whole! Thus it will be seen that in our estimate from 1930 to 1970, we have made no allowance for increase by emigration, but have put the natural increase 12 per cent, below that from 1830 to 1870. The estimate is large, yet we think it below the bounds of reason. Vast as this aggregate seems, being a little more than one-thirdthe largest estimate of the present population of the globe, it is in all probability below the actual number of the inhabitants of the government of North America in 1970. It should be remembered that only small portions of the earth have a population approaching in density what the land is able to sustain, and those portions are often among the most sterile. Taking the whole of North x\merica as the probable ex- tent of our country in 1970, and this estimate would give but 70^o inhabitants to a square mile, or if we reject the uninhabitable por- tion, which it would be excessively liberal to estimate at one-half, we should have a maxi- mum density of HOf^^o to the square mile. In 1855, Belgium had a population of 397 persons to the square mile, although its soil is generally sterile ; and Saxony, England and Wales, Netherlands, Sardinia, Wurtem- burg, and Ireland, each exceeded 200 persons to the square mile. Indeed, with the excep- tion of Russia, Sweden, Norway, and Den- mark, nearly all the States of Europe have a more dense population than this would be. With a more intelligent and skillful culture of the arable portions of the earth's surface, and a careful husbanding of much that is now recklessly wasted, there is no reason why six or even tenfold the present population of the globe might not be supported in far greater comfort than is at present the lot of many millions of its people ; and the progress in agiiculture, manufactures and the arts in the next hundred years will be such as to make a dense population of the globe possible without suffering. It is a much more difficult matter to pre- dict the future growth of cities than of a whole country ; for there are so many things to disturb the uniformity of municipal growth, things which can not be foreseen, but which exert a controlling influence for a score or more of years, and where there is a 28 strong rivalry between two cities, a simple and apparently insignificant incident may turn the scale toward one or the other, and its rival fall into decadence. In 1860, Chi- cago and St. Louis were bitter rivals, and St. Louis had decidedly the advantage in popu- lation, location, and capital. The three years which followed changed this position of things. St. Louis, from its proximity to the seat of war, and from the paralyzing influ- ence of the war upon its industries, fell be- hind in the race, and its energetic rival seized the opportunity to lead in those lines of traffic in which St. Louis had been preeminent, and to secure those connections with the Pacific Railway and the Northwest, which gave it the trade and travel of an almost illimitable region. When, in 1864, St. Louis awaked to the consideration of her future, she found how greatly she had retrograded, and though she has, since that time, made desperate ef- forts to regain her prestige, and although she is unquestionably destined to become a great city, yet it will be long before she can re- trieve those three lost years, and longer still before she can lead the way for the City of the Lakes to follow. Other examples of these epochs in the life of a city will occur to all.. It is necessary, too, in predicting the future growth of a large city, to take into the ac- count as really a part of its growth, the pop- ulation of the region within a radius of from six to fifteen miles of its central point; for although this may not be technically within its corporate limits, it is, in all large cities, really a part of its actual inhabitants. This is particularly the case when, as in the case of New York or Boston originally, the actual; corporate limits of the city are circumscribed; by natural boundaries. It is probable that the population now inhabiting Manhattan Island is very little more than it was in 1860. There has been growth certainly in the upper wards, but not to the same extent as the diminution in the lower wards, where great 468 APPENDIX. hives of population have been transformed into broad streets occupied by great ware- houses, and where now there is hardly a fam- ily where once were hundreds. But the con- stant influx of population has overflowed into Brooklyn, East New York, Jamaica, &c., Stat- en Island, Bergen, Jersey City, Hudson, Ho- boken, Newark, Paterson, Orange, Bloomfield, Montclair, and even as far as Plainfield, N. J., and toward the north has filled up the lower portion of Westchester county, till it is for many miles a continuous and dense village population. No estimate of the population which failed to take these suburbs of the city into the account would do justice to its ad- vance. Yet this greatly complicates the question of future growth. With the present facilities for travel, the merchant or mechanic doing business in New York can reach his shop, office or store in an hour after leaving his home fifteen or eighteen miles away, or in from thirty to forty-five minutes if he lives four, five, or six miles away. Next year, with the improved methods of transit he may be able to come from these distances in half the time he now spends, and places twenty-five or thirty miles distant by the same improve- ments will be just as desirable for residences to those whose business does not require them to be too early at their work. Twenty years hence there may be such rapid means of transit that a man sixty miles distant can reach his place of business in fifty or sixty minutes. Must we then include in the city the population for a radius of sixty miles ? Other things being equal, that city will be the largest in which concentrate the largest number of trunk lines of railways, ocean or lake steamers, canals, &c., and which by its abundant capital is able fo accumulate the goods from all quarters which are requisite to supply the demands of the merchants, manufactjirers, miners and mechanics who flock thither, on the best terms. But to re- tain this preeminence requires a constant struggle. With the increasing facilities and cheapness of travel, the merchant who has bought his supply of goods at Omaha will come to Chicago, if he can do enough better to pay him for the journey, or if he has bought at Chicago, he will come to New York ; and if he finds that Liverpool or Lon- don or Paris afford goods materially cheaper than New York, and he wants enough to pay for the additional time or trouble, he will cross the ocean. At this very time, lines of railroad are nearing completion, the freight cars of which will lay down the flour and grain of the West, the coal and petroleum of the Central States, and the fruits and vegetables of the Northern and North-western tier of States at Boston, at about the same price, without breaking bulk, at which they are now brought to New York ; and not only can these articles be shipped to Europe from that city at less cost than from New York, but goods can be brought from Europe in return sooner and cheaper than to New York. Bos- ton has not all or even one-half the advan- tages for business which New York has, and hence can not probably compete very suc- cessfully with her ; but it is in these constant struggles for the supremacy that the danger of decadence in our great cities lies. Yet with all these drawbacks to any very minute accuracy in our estimates, we have felt that it was necessary to prepare a tabular state- ment of the probable growth of our leading cities in each decade of the next hundred years. In this, acting upon the principle we have laid down, we give but one city where there are several so contiguous as to be really but suburbs of it, and include them in our estimates. We have been mindful also of the fact that a city will cease to grow when its distances become too great for conven- ience, and its cost of rents and living too great for its citizens to be able to make a profit on their business. In the following tables we give the popu- lation of nearly one hundred cities, accord- ing to the census of the United States for 1850 and 1860, with the rates of increase; also the estimated population for one hundred years, beginning with 1870, with the average per centage of increase for the ten decades. It will be observed that the per centage in nearly all cases, except a few of the new cities in the West, is much below our es- timate for the whole country, while the ten- dency of population is to concentrate in cities. The reason of this must be obvious to the intelligent reader. Throughout the Missis- sippi Valley and in the new States, there are hundreds of towns and villages, now too small to be included in this table, which within the coming hundred years will grow up into populous and flourishing cities. The routes of our great transcontinental railroads, the Union, Northern, Southern, and Kansas Pacific, will also be studded with cities where now there are only broad prairies. These estimates, at best, are but an approximation to the truth, but they will furnish some data for enabling us to comprehend the America of the future. ft^-*$s ^x ^^1 ■4% iMmm 2: o o > 5 — o n O ^t. 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I- 05 71 • 10 l-^OOeO - (35 .-IOC-*lOii-ll-1,05_^C^eO M r-4_0 ^^_cq_(M^.--_S 00 oTcf io~crT-rcocceoor- feu. 2® a «j a r muo 'L^-? 00^ ;^« r'^ : •.fi as y>s - * 2 o o s 2 U Q P P n p^ N piH O m APPENDIX. There were arrayed not only the differing in- terests of two sections of the country, settled at first by difierent classes, and whose cli- mate, soil and productions were unlike ; the one composed of an active, industrious, and homogeneous population, the other having mainly but two classes, the aristocratic and the servile, and the latter without hope of advancement or of liberation from slavery. The war was bitter, and at times the result seemed doubtful, 'but in the end the nation and its government were stronger than be- fore. The destruction of slavery, and the strong bonds, moral, social, political, and physical, which bind all the different sections of the country together, forbid for fifty years to come any serious probability of another civil war. If it comes, soon or late, it must be from one or other of the following causes : the introduction in vast numbers of an infe- rior laboring class, such as the Chinese or Hindoos, and their discontent with the treat- ment they receive, or the rights and privi- leges of which they are deprived. Should the Chinese, for instance, emigrate to the United States to the number of say twenty millions, and be refused suffrage and political rights, and at the same time be oppressed and kept in a servile position, we might ex- pect a protracted civil war and very possibly as a result a change in our forms of govern- ment. If, again, the Hispano-American races, (the Mexicans, Central Americans, Cubans, &c.) of whom there seems a probability that the greater part will be annexed during the coming twenty-five or fifty years, with their old proclivity for revolutions and pro- nunciamentos, should feel themselves ag- grieved and lift the standard of revolt, there would follow a civil war, which would be "short, sharp, and decisive," but would be likely forever to prevent any farther aspira- tions in that direction, A more reasonable cause of concern in regard to the stability of our present form of government, may be found in the tendencies to an oligarchy of wealth and political power in our great cities and the fearful corruption of the ballot, which even now exists. If a man possessing large wealth and devoid of moral principle, can, by alien votes, repeat- ing, fraudulent naturalizations, or fraudulent canvass of votes, attain to power in the city, county, or State ; if he can bribe the legis- latures, purchase influence or control the ju- diciary, and put his own creatures in all places of trust, he may not, at some unex- pected moment, find it difficult to reach the Presidency, and by the aid of his servile tools and dupes, effect a coup d'etat and make him- self President for life. King, Emperor, or Autocrat. How long he would be able to maintain himself in such a position would be questionable ; our people in general have no great fondness for crowned heads, or for usurpers of any degree ; but there is a con- siderable class who would be attracted by the pomp and display of royalty, and if they could attain to honors, places or preferments through the royal villain, would willingly give him their homage. We do not beUeve that it would be possible for such a usurper to long enjoy his ill-gotten power, but the great danger would be that the barriers which now hedge in our Constitution and our re- publican form of government being thus broken down, would lose so much of their sanctity in the eyes of the nation that a second aggression would be less difficult than the first, and a third more successful than either. Our greatest danger as a nation is to be found in the knavery of those railroad kings and chiefs of rings who will employ money to corrupt electors, to make fraudu- lent canvasses of votes, to buy judges and legislatures, and to secure to themselves as nearly as possible irresponsible power. The tendency of our government before the war was toward state sovereignty ; by slow degrees the central or federal power was weakened and the power of the States strengthened, till even a man of stronger will and more earnest patriotism than Mr. Bu- chanan might have been justified in doubting whether the Federal Government actually possessed the power to coerce a rebellious State. The State sovereignty heresy was so inwoven into the hearts of the Southern peo- ple through the mischievous teachings of Calhoun and his disciples, that they never regarded themselves as citizens of the United States ; they were South Carolinians, Virgin- ians, Marylanders, Georgians, &c., and intel- ligent citizens of Great Britain and France had learned to distinguish between the peo- ple of the North and the South who visited Europe, by this very trait; the Northern man always called himself an American or a citizen of the United States, the Southerner never did so, but always named his State. The war broke down these distinctions and State sovereignty with them. As was nat- ural, the pendulum swung at first too far in the other direction ; the Federal power was APPENDIX. 473 exaggerated, perhaps, a little beyond its just claims; but there is, even now, a reaction which needs to be guarded against. Yet the checks and balances of our system are so ad- mirable that we may fairly hope that our present form of government, the best, all things considered, which man has yet known, will be continued for the next hundred years. The President of that time will have a hun- dred States or more under his sway, and will be the chief ruler of a mightier empire than ever was subject to one man in the world's history. The cares of such a position will be such as few men will be able to endure, and while the number of his cabinet officers must be greatly increased, and they must be more fully responsible to the National Legis- lature for their respective departments, his own labors will be herculean. It will make his task somewhat easier, as well as conduce greatly to the national quiet, if his terra of of- fice is extended to six years, and a reelection is prohibited at least until one term has inter- vened. Among the other changes which will be forced upon the nation by the great in- crease of population and enterprise, will be the establishment of distinct departments for Agriculture, Manufactures, Mining, Com- merce, and Education ; the division of the present Treasury Depattment into sub-depart- ments, of Finance, Currency and Coinage, Internal Revenue, Foreign Revenue, and Debt — the simplification of all revenue systems, whether home or foreign — the addition of a postal telegraph system to our present post- office system, the Government directorship and supervision for its mail and transporta- tion purposes, of all the principal railway and steamship lines ;* a department of the public lands, which shall be able to facilitate their sale to actual settlers ; the payment of all pensions in monthly or semi-monthly instal- ments; a reorganization of the Patent Office, to facilitate and encourage useful inventions ; the protection and aid of immigration, and such freedom of intercourse with the coun- tries of Europe as may enable us readily to adopt any of their improvements or methods of cultivation, manufacture or mining which may prove advantageous to us, and to recip- rocate these advantages with them. Were all the nations of the earth, or even all our own people, governed by the law of *We desire to be distinctly understood as ex- pressing no opinion in regard to the propriety of these measures. We are not speaking of what ought to be, but of what will be. love, we might, even with our vast increase of population, administer our affairs without any considerable enlargement of our army ot navy, which, small as both are, would be suf- ficient for national police duty ; but unfortu- nately we have not attained, and probably shall not in the next hundred years attain to that blissful condition. Our isolation and our numbers will render a large standing army unnecessary ; but the increasing admix- ture of races in our population, and the reek- less character of some portions of it, will require a steady though not a rapid increase of the army to maintain peace in all quar- ters. The necessities of our commerce and the advancement of science will require the maintenance of an efficient navy, not so much for warfare, offensive or defensive, as for the promotion of the interests of peace and good order. Our foreign relations will require the best abilities of the foremost statesmen of the nation for their successful management, not because we shall be in any special danger of war with foreign powers ; our great popula- tion, our ample resources, and our somewhat isolated position will render that improbable ; but a great nation must set an example to the smaller powers of moderation, of justice, of honorable dealing, and of dignity. It must not be so easy and careless, as to tempt impo- sition upon its good nature, nor so sensitive and jealous, as to be too ready to take offense where none is intended. As our population will be drawn from the four quarters of the globe, it will be needful for our Foreign Sec- retary or Minister of Foreign Affairs to see to it that none of those who have become citizens shall fail of receiving that protection in all their lawful enterprises to which they are entitled ; and to this end a watchful care must be kept against any attempted aggres- sions or oppressions On our immigrants when they revisit their native lands; as well as against the commercial frauds which are so often practiced under our consular system. Wrongs there will undoubtedly be against our commerce and our citizens, as there have been in the past, and these wrongs it will be the office of our Secretary of Foreign Affairs to redress, always being mindful of the will of the people, as expressed through their rep- resentatives in Congress. The negotiations for further accessions of territory will also be a part of his duty, if by that time we are not already the possessors of the entire North American Continent and the islands 474 APPENDIX. adjacent, which seems probable. At all events, we are not likely to find it neces- sary to purchase territory otherwise than, perhaps, by the assumption of the debts of the republics or colonies which desire to unite with us, if these debts are not too large; the smaller States will gravitate toward us in due season, and will be seeking the privilege of annexing themselves to us. We must give a separate chapter to the "Finances of the Future," and hence will not consider now the duties or the policy of the cabinet officer who may a hundred years hence preside over the Treasury. The functions of the Minister of the Inte- rior will be somewhat changed. He has now under his care the Bureau of Public Lands, the Bureau of Pensions, and the Bureau of Indian Affairs, with a quasi responsibility over the Patent Office, the Agricultural De- partment, the Department of Education, and a supervision of the Census Bureau during the years while the census is being taken and prepared for publication. The General Land Office will probably exist a hundred years hence only for the care of its archives, or the superintendence of such lands, should there be any, as the General Government has re- served to itself the right of controlling for national purposes aside from those in charge of the War and Naval Departments. No available lands will then remain for settle- ment in the hands of the government, unless possibly some in Northern Alaska, among the highest mountains of Mexico, or on the shores of Labrador or Greenland. The Pen- sion Bureau may still exist, for even if we have no other wars, there will be a few chil- dren or other relatives of the heroes of the War of 1861-5, who will still claim the na- tion's bounty, and the veterans of the army or navy service may by that time have a re- tiring pension. The Bureau of Indian Affairs will be a thing of the past, for except such of the Indians as have adopted the habits of civilization and the responsibilities of citi- zenship, the red men will have entirely dis- appeared. The Patent Office, the Agricul- tural Department, and the Department of Education, will have each become separate and independent branches of the govern- ment, and the Census Bureau will have been merged in a general Department of Statistics. There will remain, however, to the Depart- ment of the Interior, the superintendence of the government buildings and lands, a Bureau of Labor, which shall have a general over- sight and care for the millions of immigrants, especially from Asia, who, but for some such care, would be in danger of suffering griev- ous wrongs ; a Bureau of Travel and Trans- portation, which shall control in the interests of the government the great routes and means of locomotion, which by that time will have come into the hands of the government, as the Erie Canal has become the property of the State of New York, the government own- ing the roads and routes, and renting for terms of years the privilege of running steam- cars, caloric cars, electro-motive cars and en- gines, or cars, spheres or cylinders diiven by compressed air or other motive power, upon them, by the payment of a fixed rate per mile. It will have also a Bureau of Mines and Mining, in which those connected with that great interest can be brought directly in communication with the government, and all questions relative to the government mineral lands can be solved. If there shall remain any forest lands appertaining to the govern- ment domain, the preservation of the forests, and the restoration of such as have been cut off, with reference both to the government interests, and to their effect on climate, hu- midity, and capacity for restoring needed elements to the soil and lands about them, will form another bureau of great importance. There will therefore be ample work for the Department of the Interior, though of a dif- ferent character from that which now occu- pies it. The whole subject of Revenue, whether from excise, stamps, income-tax, licenses, cus- toms or tonnage duties, should and probably will be assigned to a single department of the government; and it will not be difficult, when one competent man has virtual control of the whole subject, to so adjust these taxes as to derive from them the greatest amount of revenue with the least possible annoyance or injury to the tax-payers. There is muck to be done to simplify these matters so as to make them bear justly on all descriptions of property and vested interests, and not unduly upon any. Commerce and navigation will also soon require a distinct cabinet officer, who can de- vote himself, without the distraction of other duties, to the promotion and extension of our mercantile enterprises and to the proper management of our commercial relations with other nations. The time must come, within the next thirty or fifty years, when our commerce shall have regained more than ita APPENDIX. 475 old prestige before the war ; when England shall not be able to boast, as she now does, that in consequence of the war of 1861-5, she has been able to drive the greater part of our ships from the ocean, and that the amount of American shipping is now incon- siderable. The revival of trade, the greater development of the immense iron interest, and the impulse which will be given to the carrying trade by the pressure of Asiatic goods on our markets and of Asiatic emi- grants to our coasts, will render the com- merce of this country, both foreign and coast- wise, greater in extent than that of any other country in the world. The abstraction of commerce and navigation as well as of cus- toms and internal revenue from the Treasury Department, will not materially diminish the vast amount of labor which belongs to that department of the government. The man- agement of the National Finances, the dimi- nution and it is to be hoped the final extinc- tion of the National Debt, the organization and judicious investment of the Sinking Fund, the auditing of all the accounts of other departments prior to their payment, and the control of the currency, coinage, and banking affairs of the whole country, will be sufiicient to make that department, even after the bureaus indicated have been taken from it, the largest and most important of the gov- ernment. It is in the highest degree probable that by some modification of the newly-devised system of sphero-locomotion, the transmis- sion of our mails may be accelerated till within twenty-four hours from the time of their mailing, the letters dropped into the post-office in San Francisco will be ready for delivery in New York City, and their trans- mission across all but the largest oceans by a similar process is not an impossibility. This rapidity of transmission, as well as the great increase of population, must of neces- sity multiply many fold the quantity of the national correspondence, and the transmis- sion of newspapers and periodicals also. While this must greatly increase the labors of the post-offices, it is to be hoped that con- trivances for the more expeditious sorting and delivering of letters will be devised, which shall greatly increase the efficiency of the Post Office Department. The money- order system, which is destined to have an almost indefinite extension, and the postal savings bank system, will undoubtedly be- come leading features ia its work, facilitating greatly, as they will, the transaction of all business requiring the remittance of money in small sums. Should the government, as now seems probable, take into its own hands the transmission of telegraphic despatches, and perhaps also the forwarding of parcels below a certain weight, the Post Office De- partment will require a very considerable en- largement to enable it to perform its numer- ous classes of duties. The law officer of the Executive Depart- ment of the Government, the Attorney- General, is with us a member of the Cabinet, though no other nation having a representa- tive form of government makes him so. His duties will of course increase with the growth of the nation, but hardly to the same extent as those of the other cabinet officers. Turning to the other coordinate branches of the government, we foresee some great changes, both in the constitution and customs of the two houses of Congress. The Senate was intended to be a grave, deliberative body composed of the ablest men — the represent- ative men — of each State, and a sort of coun- terpoise to the light weights of the other branch of the National Legislature. It did not long come up fully to this high standard, and for a score of years past it has steadily degenerated. The highest deliberative body in the country, some of its members have not been ashamed at almost any session for the last twenty years to enter its stately chamber in a condition of the grossest intoxication, and even to attempt to participate in its de- bates in that disgraceful state. There are indeed many noble and honorable men among its members ; but they should know that the dishonor of such misconduct reflects upon the whole Senate, and should have been prompt to punish such offenders with expul- sion. But it is not drunkenness alone which dishonors the Senate. The violent denun- ciation, the reckless abuse, and the constant imputation of base and unworthy motives in the debates of the Senate, assimilate it too closely to the unseemly wrangling of the House of Representatives. It were to be wished that the Senators could have been chosen without reference to party ; hut as that seems now impossible, it is certainly not too much to hope that no State will disgrace itself by sending to that exalted position, a low blackguard, a drunkard, a gambler, or an unprincipled demagogue. Yet, unless there is some change or check in regard to the election of Senators, when the time comes, 476 APPEKDIX. as come it will within the century, when two hundred Senators, the representatives in that body of a hundred States, shall take their seats there, there will be reenacted on the floor of the Senate chamber, the scenes of folly, depravity and brutality which have hitherto been confined to the Lower House. How indeed can it be otherwise ? We might hope that the several States would select their best men for their representatives in the Senate, but the experience of the past twenty-five years forbids the belief that the moral character of State Legislatures will be sufficiently high to prevent them from send- ing, sometimes, bad, base, unprincipled dem- agogues to the Senate on partisan grounds. Among these two hundred there will be such a mixture of races, religions and civilizations, as have not been seen together elsewhere. The States of the Atlantic coast and the Missis- sippi Valley may retain their representatives of the Anglo-Saxon race, with perhaps some slight admixture of the Celt, the Teuton, and the African, but from the north will come French Canadians, Celts, and half-breeds; from the Rocky Mountains, Chinese and civ- ilized Indians ; from the Pacific coast, Chi- nese, Japanese, Malays, and perhaps Hindoos; the stalwart Indian of the northern portion of British Columbia, and the Esquimaux of Alaska. From Mexico and Central America, those mixed Spanish, Indian, and Negro races, in which most of the bad traits of all three predominate ; from the West Indies, the diminutive Cuban Creole, whose hot blood makes him always ready for strife, and the Negroes and Mulattoes of Hayti and St. Domingo, with all their worst passions in the ascendancy from a hundred years of anarchy and bloodshed. From these diverse races and peoples must our Senators be chosen, unless some plan can be hit upon for select- ing the best men of the nation without ref- erence to locality, for its Grand Council. There could be no hope of any great meas- ures for good being originated or promoted in such a motley assemblage. As to the House of Representatives, we must confess that its present character gives very little ground of hope for the future. Within a few years past it has had among its members, murderers, gamblers, prize-fighters, swindlers, and thieves, (the names of repre- sentatives of each of these classes will occur at once to every intelligent reader,) and it has, not inappropriately, been named "The National Bear Garden ;" when it shall come to have nearly seven hundred members from these diverse nationalities, elected by uni- versal suffrage, and in the mad scramble fot office or place, the worst demagogue having the best chance of election, how can it be other than a motley horde which will include many of the worst men of the nation ? There might be, there probably would be, some good men even in this collection of "Black spirits and white, blue spirits and gray," but they would be utterly powerless for the accomplishment of any good purpose. The; only hope for a better National Parliament or Congress lies in three measures : a restric- tion of suffrage by a standard of intelligence, education, and morality ; a reduction of the number, by largely increasing the ratio of population for a representative, and their election by general instead of local ticket, with a provision for the representation of minorities. "To this complexion it must come," sooner or later, and the sooner the better for the country. This is a matter of greater importance than is generally suppos- ed, for upon the character of our national legislation will largely depend the future welfare of our country. The other coordinate branch of our gov- ernment, the Judiciary, will probably undergo less change than any other department of the government. There will be of course a larger number of judges, and it is to be hoped sound discretion will prevail in their selection. It would be a sad thing for the nation if the Justices of the Supreme Court should ever come to be brawling political partisans and demagogues, or men who would take bribes, or degrade their high positions by any un- worthy act or motive. They should be, as they have been in the past, men learned in the law, capable of comprehending its great principles, of understanding its broad gener- alizations ; not too much cramped and fet- tered by its letter, but grasping the spirit that underhes the letter; men thoroughly versed in the principles of equity ; men who, like John Marshall, the first and noblest of our Chief Justices, were sure to get at the right of any question, though they might not be able always to give chapter and verse of the precedents for it. It might be well, too, that they should not be disposed to adhere too slavishly to precedents, but in the con- sideration of the great national questions occasionally brought before them, incline to remember that there were cases where it was APPENDIX. 477 the duty of the judge to make precedents for others to follow, rather than to follow those of others. Our nation is a great one and is rapidly growing ; its situation, its population, its political character, and its government, differ materially from those of all other na- tions, and require a different application of legal principles in many cases. This rigid adherence to precedents laid down in other countries at other times, and under other cir- cumstances, has been a great defect of all our higher courts, State and National. As to the State governments, while all will probably be on a republican basis, since without a most radical change in the National Consti- tution they could not be admitted into the Union with any other, there will be, doubt- less, a greater diversity than now exists in their details of law and government. As yet the Anglo Saxon element is pre- dominant in the constitution and government of every State. In some it is modified to some extent by other influences ; as for in- stance in Louisiana, where the French ele- ment permeates many of the constitutional provisions and State laws, and in some of the newer States of the Northwest, where the Teutonic element has introduced some laxity in regard to the observance of the Sabbath, and other questions of ethics and good mor- als. But the Anglo-Saxon element has nearly exhausted its capacity for State-building in this country. We shall in the future receive, it is true, some accessions of immigrants from England, but more from Ireland, Germany, the Scandinavian countries, France and Italy, and the immigrants from Germany and Scan- dinavia are coming to a large extent in par- tially organized colonies, prepared to take up large tracts of land and to exert a formative influence on the new States yet to be formed. This influence will differ somewhat, though not very widely from that of the Anglo- Saxons, and there is perhaps little to fear from it. The Celtic races are not so much inclined to colonize, but they will congregate in our large cities, and through their greed for office, and their slight conscientiousness, partly perhaps the result of ignorance, they will form fit tools for designing knaves, and by false naturalization papers, fraudulent voting and repeating, will accomplish more toward subverting good government than ten times their number of honest men could do toward maintaining it. But there are other elements of population which will gain the ascendancy in some por- tions of the country, whose influence may be far more potent for good or evil than any of these we have named. We do not refer to the Negro, for it is doubtful whether even now he has a majority of voters in any State of the Union ; and if he has, it will be but temporary and productive of no serious mis- chief ; for he is readily controlled by white men in whom he trusts, and has so much of the childlike, imitative propensity, that he will copy perhaps even too closely the con- stitutions and laws of the Anglo-Saxon States. With the Chinese and the Japanese, on the contrary, there is very little disposition to imitate our institutions or laws. In the States in which, fifty years hence, they will pre- dominate, they will, doubtless, organize a professedly republican form of government in order to their admission to the Union ; but in all other respects, the Chinese forms will be copied, for tfohn Chinaman, beneath all his apparent humility and teachableness, has an innate conviction that China is the only country that has a perfect government and laws, and that he himself is better qual- ified than any man of another nation, any "outside barbarian," can possibly be, to es- tablish a government and laws according to that infallible pattern. We shall be likely to have, then, Chinese and possibly Japanese States ; of different forms, purposes, religious civilizations, from our own ; and with these we must constantly be brought in contact. Another form of government and system of laws differing materially from our present ones will be those of the Hispano-American States, which are fast preparing to be annexed to ds, and the two Negro republics, which, sooner or later, will also be thrust upon us. The Spaniard in his best estate is singularly ill qualified for a democratic form of govern- ment, and his American half-brother inherits all his disqualifications, with a host more which are specially his own. Pride, haught- iness, conten^pt for others, an overweening self-conceit, jealousy, intolerance and cruelty, are his chief sins, and the really numerous virtues which partially compensate for these vices, are not of a character to help much in his efforts at republicanism. No Spanish and indeed no Celtic nation has ever maintained for any considerable period a well-ordered republican government. Chili has come nearer to it than any other State, but her revolutions have been numerous, and her re- publicanism is a very different thing from our idea. Should we, as we probably shall, admit 478 APPENDIX. tliese States to the Union, it must be with a material modification of their present forms of government, and a provision that will pre- vent their uprising and issuing pronuncia- mentos at the beck of any aspiring dema- gogue. There must also be an entire abolition of all the requirements of a state church, and the hindrances placed on education. The Canadians, the citizens of the Eastern Provinces, the people of Labrador, Winnipeg, and British Columbia, will require some mod- ifications in their views and organizations before they can enter the Union as States. The French creole population of Canada, the half-breeds of Winnipeg, and the loyalists of Ontario, have all something to learn and much to unlearn before they will become qualified for a truly republican form of gov- ernment. Whether the pressure of popula- tion upon the Pacific coast will drive or draw a sufficient number of hardy adventurers and their families into Alaska to make it possible to erect that forbidding territory into one or more States, within a hundred years, is, per- haps, a question. We are inclined to the belief that it will, and that the influence of kindness and good management will draw enough of the Innuits or Esquimaux into the lower portion of the territory to make them a large fraction of its population. The Es- quimaux are a gentle, harmless race, but their capacity for self-government is, to say the least, problematical. We are doubtful, too, of the ability of the semi-savages of Hayti and St. Domingo, and of the Mosquito coast, ever to become good citizens of a republican government, much less to rule in or legislate for it, not so much on account of their race, though these ad- mixtures in all grades of servile and degraded races, give little promise of excellence ; but mainly because for nearly three-fourths of a century their history has been one of anar- chy, rapacity, revenge and blood-thirstiness, and the worst passions of the human heart have attained such a predominance that it will take a full century of a strong but pa- ternal government and the influence of intel- lectual culture and an active Christianity, to bring them up to the level of the other na- tions of Christendom in self-control, civil order, and capacity for self-government. The outlook, then, for the government of our country in 1970 is not without its dark clouds and threatening storms. The bow of hope, in the general diffusion of education and Christianity, may span the sky as we look toward the far-distant evening ; but its radiant beauty is hidden in part by the gloomy shadows of overhanging clouds. It remains to be seen whether the experiment, which is to be tried here on a grander scale than ever before in our world, of reducing so many dif- ferent races, in such vast numbers, to a ho- mogeneous mass, under one government, and that, one in which they themselves shall be the rulers — can prove a success. All the experiments of the past are against it ; but they never embraced the principle of self-gov- ernment. The despot, who gathered nations under his sway and used them for his own purposes of self-aggrandizement, held them by his own personal will and magnetism, and when that was gone, they fell back naturally into their original elements. If the union of these diverse nations can become a fusion, and from that fusion there can grow up a homogeneous nation with a singleness of aim and purpose, and an intelligence and prin- ciple sufficient to enable it to govern itself, then indeed will the great experiment prove a glorious success ; but is this possible ? CHAPTEK III. THE FINANCES OF THE FUTURE. In the matter of finance we have to con- sider, 1st. The National or Governmental receipts and expenditures ; 2d. Those of States and cities; 3d. The individual in- comes and extravagance. Under the first head we may remark that while it is altogether probable that our pres- ent national debt will be substantially wiped out before or by the close of the present cen- tury, there is no good reason to suppose that we shall ever again be without a national debt of considerable, though probably not of oppressive amount. There is no absolute necessity for this, for so great and so con- stantly increasing are our resources that a very moderate rate of taxation ought to be sufficient to pay off" the existing debt and supply the means for all indispensable expen- diture. As we have said elsewhere, there is little probability of another great war for the next hundred years. But so great will be the pressure for the acquisition of new terri- tory, that the government will inevitably be led into more foolish bargains like that of Alaska, or into the purchase of islands or APPENDIX. 479 colonies already saddled with heavy debts of somewhat indefinite amount, which will be sure to grow larger as the prospect of their payment increases ; and when we have made one purchase of this kind, we shall have to make another of some adjacent island or mainland, because that which we have just acquired will not be complete without it, or will be in peril in some remote contingency unless we buy other lands which we do not need. And in this way the work of purchase will go on till we shall have absorbed the entire continent and the adjacent islands. It is evident, to be sure, that if we will sit still, and be contented with what we now have, all these adjacent states and countries will gravitate toward us, and before long be beg- ging us to annex them without a considera- tion ; but what nation was ever content to sit still and let the adjacent nations come and ask to be taken in ? These various adjacent states having been absorbed in our country, will demand, and' the demand will be granted, that they should have the same facilities and grants for in- ternal improvements as the states and terri- tories now in the Union have received. Canada will require a railroad to the Pacific, and roads stretching northward to Winnipeg, to Hudson's Bay, and to the eastern prov- inces. The Saguenay will become a favorite summer resort, and there will be a necessity for a railway in that direction. What is now British Columbia will require railroads and telegraphs and tubular bridges to facilitate communication with Vancouver's Island, and the Frazer River country ; the argument will be urged and probably prove irresistible, that if we are ever to make anything out of Alaska, we must have railroads and subsi- dized steamer lines and telegraphs to develop the country and facilitate communication with Russia via Siberia. The valleys of the Rocky Mountains and of the Sierra Nevada must each have a railway running through them to open the country and enable the set- tlers to reach the great East and West lines, and send their bullion, their minerals, their cattle and their grains to market. New Mexico and Arizona and Western Texas must be gridironed with railways, to drive away the Indians and aid in the development of their rich mines, and with these railways there must be Artesian wells bored, not more than a mile apart, to furnish water for the roads, and to irrigate these waterless lands. Mexico will need a host of railways, not only to occupy her valleys running from North to South, but to chmb her lofty plateaus and to cross her mountain slopes ; and if perchance some fine morning an earthquake should in- terfere with the grade, depressing or eleva- ting portions of it, or a stream of molten lava should prove a slight obstruction to the progress of the iron horse, why, it will be so much the worse for the road, and the gov- ernment will be called upon to make it all right. Central America will require not only railroads but ship canals, two or three prob- ably, to enable her to draw toward her shores the commerce of the East; and here again the government will be expected to insure against losses by earthquake or volcano. The West Indies will need railroads, arti- ficial harbors, breakwaters, and navy yards, dry-docks, public buildings, &c. &c. And each of the hundred or more States compo- sing the Union of 1970 will feel specially aggrieved unless the government expends from six to ten millions for river and harbor improvement, buildings for courts, post- oflBces, custom-houses, &c. &c. We regard and with some justice our present taxation, state and national, as heavy, not really oppressive, but onerous, and should hardly be willing to bear burdens as heavy for a very long time in the future ; yet our taxes are really much lighter than those of the British people. Their valuation of real and personal property, is, it is true, about five times what ours was in 1860, and per- haps two and a half times our present valua- tion, but when we add to the national reve- nues, which average about three hundred and seventy millions of dollars, the educa- tional taxes, county, borough, city, and above all the poor rates, the grand aggregate is more than one thousand millions of dol- lars to be paid by a population less than three-fourths of ours. The resources of our people are multiplying more rapidly than those of any other nation in history, but our expenditures will, unless jealously guarded, multiply quite as fast. The expenditures of the General Govern- ment for the year ending June 30, 1869, were 1321,490,596. Of this sum, $130,694,- 243 was for interest on the public debt. The expenditures of the year ending June 30, 1870, will not, it is said, be quite so large, though including the payment of nearly sev- enty millions of the public debt, but a greedy horde of claimants are tugging at the public purse, and it is hard to shake them 480 APPENDIX. off. For a time the railroad companies will be partially satisfied by large donations of the public lands, and some of them have al- ready received enough to make a half-dozen European duchies, but ere long the public lands will be exhausted, and then the clamor for money will be renewed. Can we suppose it will be ineffectual ? It is estimated by those who have given special attention to the subject, that a fair valuation of the taxable property of our peo- ple, real and personal, in the year 1870 will show an amount of thirty-five thousand mill- ions of dollars, and possibly a little more than this. We are just entering upon a period of far more rapid development of our resources than anything we have yet seen, and if we have thirty-five billions in 1870, we shall certainly reach seventy billions in 1880, and one hundred and sixty billions at least by 1900, or twice the present wealth of the British Empire, the richest of modern States. That by the year 1970 we should attain to a valuation of a trillion or $1,000,- 000,000,000, seems not only possible but probable. The sum is indeed so large that we can not comprehend it, and it makes but little impression on our minds ; but it repre- sents an amount probably greater than the aggregate wealth of the entire globe to-day. Our present revenue is just about one per cent, on our supposed valuation ; if it con- tinues to hold the same relation, the revenue of the country for 1970 would be $10,000,- 000,000, or four times the amount of our national debt, and almost three times that of the national debt of Great Britain. We must bear in mind, however, that, by that time, the purchasing power of money will have materially depreciated. A dollar in gold will not now purchase as much of most com- modities, especially of articles of food, as fifty cents would have done in 1848; and when all the gold fields of our own conti- nent, and those of Europe, Asia, Africa, Aus- tralia, and the islands of the Pacific, are yielding their maximum quantity of the pre- cious metals, five dollars in gold will hardly purchase more than one dollar will now. There will be then necessarily a great in- crease in the salaries paid by government, and a corresponding increase in all its expen- ditures. The ruler of a realm of six or seven hundred millions of people will hardly re- ceive a salary of less than half a million dol- lars for the expenses of the Presidential household, (one-fourth the allowance now made to the Royal Household of Great Brit- ain,) while a cabinet minister's salary will probably not be less than $50,000. So vast a population will necessarily require a great number of oflScials, though many things will then be accomplished by machinery which now require the labor of human hands. In nothing, perhaps, will this be more conspic- uous than in the dispatch of the mails, now requiring on all the larger routes the attend- ance and personal service of a route-agent, but which, then committed, at the great dis- tributing oflSce, to their spherical or elliptical receptacle, and closed by a spring-lock, will be rolled into their tubes and dispatched with perfect safety and almost lightning speed to their several destinations, secure by their very speed from depredation while in transit. But with all the aid of machinery, there will still be probably a hundred thou- sand or more oflScials, all eager for govern- ment pay. Should the government, as is possible, become the proprietor of all the principal railroad routes of the country, not running its own cars, but leasing to all re- sponsible parties at fixed rates the right to run trains upon the roads oh certain condi- tions, thus abolishing the hateful railroad monopolies, there would be a small army of officials necessary for the superintendence of this work. The adoption of a system of compulsory education, which will become an admitted necessity within a few years, will also require a very large force of teachers, whose pay must come directly or indirectly from the government. When we add to these items the various subsidies to lines of transportation by land and water, a principle which has already, perhaps necessarily, been established ; the construction and maintenance of new routes of communication, for which there will be a constant demand ; the support of the army, navy, and revenue services ; the endowment of institutions of higher education in art, literature, physical science and practical tech* nology, and the other myriad demands for governmental expenditure which a hundred years of active energetic national life will develop, and a hundred years of practice by the cormorants upon the public purse will crave, we think we are not predicting a larger revenue than will be required when we put the income of the government in the year 1970 at ten thousand miUions of dollars. But the local expenditure of States, counties, and especially of great cities, will APPENDIX. 481 in the aggregate largely exceed that of the National Government. This is inevitable. When single States of the Republic exceed, as several of them will, the population of some of the present important empires of the Old World ; when, for instance, New York has a population of fifty millions, and Illinois, Missouri, Nebraska, and California, as many or more, we can hardly expect that their ex- penditures of State, counties and cities will be less than those of France, Great Britain, or Austria now are, while their present num- ber of inhabitants is considerably less than the prospective population of these States of the future. The tendency of great cities in which large wealth is accumulated, to lavish expenditure, is well known. The public ex- penditures of the city and county of New York for all pui-poses, exceeded thirty-two millions of dollars in 1869. When there shall be included within a single metropolitan government and jurisdiction, a territory of twenty miles radius from the present City Hall, and a population in that territory of eighteen millions, with a valuation of $14,- 000,000,000, (its present valuation is $872,- 000,000, and this is probably not more than one-half of the true valuation, while that of Kings, Queens and Richmond counties is over two hundred millions more,) its expen- ditures for all public purposes will hardly be less than four hundred millions per year. We might go on with these estimates, but this single illustration will be sufficient to show that the public expenditures will undoubt- edly increase to an extent fully commen- surate with our future population and wealth. In the matter of private expenditure it is less easy to predict what will be the future course of our people. That there will be a considerable and constantly-increasing pro- portion of the population who will be pos- sessed of vast wealth, is certain. In our own time many of those who have rapidly acquired fortunes, and are without the cul- ture, education and refinement which would prompt them to the best use of their money, expend it most extravagantly in dress, equip- age, or pretentious and tasteless dwellings ; and there is no surer indication of newly- acquired wealth than is to be found in the profusion of gaudy and costly dresses, jew- elry, horses and carriages, or so-called palatial residences. A better education, more thor- ough art-culture, and the cultivation of a more refined taste, which usually accompany tiie possession of wealth in the second or third generation, may and probably will modify somewhat this passion for display; but as there will be in the future, as in the past, constant accessions to the class of the vulgar rich, we may expect that there will be violations of good taste in this reckless ex- travagance of dress, equipage and houses in the future. We can only hope that there may be a prevalent feeling among the wealthy against this gorgeous barbarism, which will to some extent control and subdue it. Still when we see, as we have in our own day, the heir of one of the oldest princely houses of Europe, the Prince Paul Esterhazy, seeking to surpass the other princes of Europe in the splendor of his equipage, the number of his carriages, the vast collection of his jewels, the extravagant adornment of his person and dress, and the variety and elegance of his palaces and estates, while the culture of his intellect, the furnishing of his mind and the development of his moral nature, were wholly neglected, we can hardly hope for much either from our railroad kings and great landed proprietors or their descendants. The cost of living among our middle classes has rapidly advanced within the past ten years, and has been doing a serious amount of mischief in contributing toward the destruction or material reduction of the middle class in society. While we do not believe that this class will be entirely oblit- erated in the next hundred years, we have no question it will be greatly diminished, and that a century hence our population will con- sist mainly of a very considerable class of large wealth, a small middle class, and an overwhelming number of the poor, who may perhaps be subdivided into the poor and the very poor. The class of professional men, artists, small merchants, and others living on a moderate income, before the war, found in our larger cities an income of $1,200 to $2,000 sufiicient to supply their moderate requirements, while in the smaller cities or rural districts, from $500 to $1,200 was about the limit of annual expenditure. Now, the same classes in the large cities find an in- come of from $3,000 to $7,000 absolutely indispensable for their expenses, and in the country from $1,200 to $2,500 is as neces- sary. This is not owing wholly to the ad- vance in the prices of commodities or the reduction in the purchasing power of money ; the requirements of society, at the present day, will not tolerate as inexpensive dress, food, or household conveniences as would 482 APPENDIX. have been considered amply sufficient fifteen or twenty years ago, and every step of ad- vance in this direction has augmented the cost of living. Six years ago a bankrupt merchant, turned editor, in New York, ex- pressed his belief that no one could live respectably, hardly decently, on any thing less than five thousand dollars per annum ; and illustrated his faith, by living himself at the rate of more than ten thousand dollars a year. This increased cost of living will go on, till the middle class will find that their only alternative is to live at an annual cost of twenty or twenty-five thousand dollars a year, or sink into the poor class, who lack the means, and soon the disposition, to main- tain the comforts and amenities of refined life, and the requirements of fashion. We deplore such a result, but it will come, within the century. We conclude, then, that the vast produc- tion of wealth which will flow in upon us in the next hundred years will be attended with some disadvantages as well as advantages ; that it will prove mainly beneficial to a com- paratively limited class, whose vast accumu- lations will enable them to expend large sums for the maintenance of their families, while through their lavish expenditure, and their influence, the middle class will be ruined in the effort to follow their example, and the poor be separated by a wide gulf from the classes above them in social position. CHAPTER lY. THE COMMERCE OF THE FUTURE. That our commerce, which, since it was so largely driven from the seas by piratical priva- teers, built, manned, armed and equipped in Great Britain, during the late war, has been in a state of depression, is destined to regain its ascendancy and to make us the greatest commercial nation on the globe, does not admit of a doubt. The boast of English writers within the past year that our ship- ping did not amount to one-third of what it was before the war, may be true now, but it will not be so long, and the great dispropor- tion which now exists between the number and tonnage of our vessels engaged in the carrying trade, and those of Great Britain, will be rapidl}^ diminished. The present is, however, a transition period. Not only are we compelled to submit to the rivalry which British vessels already built and eager to ob- tain cargoes, can exercise in our own ports, but at a time when it has been demonstrated that iron vessels are dieaper, safer, more ea- sily handled, and capable of carrying larger freights in proportion to their tonnage than wood, we find ourselves almost wholly with- out these vessels, and unable to build them at the rates at which they can be constructed in English ship-yards, owing to the greater cost of iron and labor. These disadvantages, severe as they may be, are however but tem- porary. We have the iron and the coal as near each other as they are in England, and both convenient to good river and marine ports. The new processes of making iron and steel, and our resort to machinery for doing that better which is done in Great Britain by hand, will soon enable us to build better iron ships than the English, and build them cheaper. The building of wooden ships, which has been so large a business in Maine for many years past, must give place to some other form of industrial enterprise. Iron ships driven by steam are now the great de- sideratum for our commerce. There seems little likelihood of a change in the material for ship-building, for iron has the advantage of great strength, lightness, stiff'ness, and cheapness, and can hardly be surpassed in these requisites by any other material. There may be a change in the motive power ; com- pressed air, or electricity, or the condensed and carefully-preserved solar heat ; and it will be a great triumph for American invention when this can be accomplished ; but we shall never go back to wood again as our chief material. We have a sea-coast and navi- gable river line unsurpassed by any nation in the world, with hundreds of excellent ports and harbors, and nothing can prevent our becoming the greatest commercial nation of the globe. With the Darien ship-canal to facilitate the transit from ocean to ocean, the improved navigation of the Missouri, the Mis- sissippi, the Red River and the Arkansas, the completion of a ship-canal from Lake Michigan to the Mississippi, and another around the Falls of Niagara, the improve- ment of the St. Lawrence, the enlargement and strengthening of the Erie and Northern Canals, and the dredging ^f the Hudson, all works sure to be accomplished in a few years, our internal and our marine commerce will assume an importance of which we can now have but a very imperfect comprehension. The total registered, enrolled and licensed APPENDIX. 483 tonnage of the United States in 1861, was 5,539,813 tons, of which 877,204 tons were steam vessels ; this was reduced in 1865 to 4,310,778 tons, in consequence of the depre- dations of the privateers. In 1868, the ton- nage had risen to 4,351,758 tons, of which 1,199,315 tons were steam vessels. This included barges and canal-boats, as well as the small coasting and fishing vessels of the seaboard, and the steamboats , of the river navigation. In all there were 28,118 vessels, giving an average tonnage of only 155 tons per vessel. The British shipping of all grades, which, in 1861, was about 1,200,000 tons less than ours, had increased in 1868 to 5,- 516,434 tons, nearly what we had in 1861, and this amount was in 22,250 vessels, giv- ing an average tonnage of 250 tons to each vessel, but only 824,614 tons were steam ves- sels, showing that even with our diminished commercial marine we had 300,000 tons more of steam vessels than Great Britain. There has been, up to the present time, a great depression in the commerce by ocean steamers of American ownership ; but this is destined to be speedily remedied, and while in 1868 there were 39 American to 106 for- eign steamers plying on the Atlantic and Gulf, we are assured that the next ten years will see the proportion reversed. The river and lake commerce of the country is only at the threshold of its development, for while the multiplication of railways will stimulate emigration and production, all the more bulky crops and mineral products can be moved far more cheaply by water than by land. The improvement of the navigation of the rivers and lakes by means of canals, locks, and slackwater dams and locks, and the in- troduction of improved engines and new motive powers will, within twenty years to come, bring the 1,200,000 tons of lake and river vessels of 1868, up to 5,000,000 tons, and by the year 1970, our internal navigation will reach 25,000,000 tons. The sea-going vessels, propelled by some efficient motive power — steam, or hot or condensed air, solar heat, or some application of electricity — will sail daily by scores from all our principal ports to all the great ports of the world, and either by reducing the friction or increasing the power or rapidity of action of their pro- pellers, they will reduce the time of the trip across the Atlantic to four days, and that across the Pacific to nine or ten. Our traffic with Europe, with the Mediterranean and Asia by way of the Red Sea, with some of 29 the West African States, which we may hope will ere that time have become stable and civilized communities, and with South Amer- ica, will be very large, amounting to many millions of tons, but this will be dwarfed into insignificance in comparison with the immense commerce of the Pacific, which is now in its infancy, but which, bringing its millions of immigrants from China, Japan, Malaysia, and India, will bring also the silks, cottons, teas, hemp, jute, rice, spices, lac- quered wares, and other goods of the Orient, for which a vast demand will be found among our six or seven hundred millions of people. From the Australian republics and New Zea- land, as well as from the numerous islands of the Pacific, we shall receive cargoes of the fruits and products of those tropical and fer- tile lands, and to all these countries in return our own manufactures and productions will be welcome. "We can hardly err, except in the way of under-statement, if we put the ocean tonnage of our country in 1970 at fifty million tuns, and the tonnage of lakes, rivers,, and internal water communications, at twenty-five million tuns. For our foreign commerce. New York, Norfolk, Baltimore, Charleston, Mobile, New Orleans, Vera Cruz,, and at the North, Boston, Portland, St. John's, and Halifax; and on the Pacific, San^ Francisco, Acapulco, Manzanilla, Guaymas,. San Diego, Monterey, Astoria, Portland,. Port Townsend, Victoria, and New West- minster will be the principal ports. There- will be also two very lai'ge ports at the ter-- mini of the Darien Canal, on the Atlantic and Pacific. Of these ports, in the nature of things. New York and San Francisco must be by far the most important. While much, of our commerce from Australia, New Zea- land, the Southern Pacific Islands and the- Malay Archipelago, will pass directly through the Darien Canal, not taking San Francisco or indeed any of the Pacific ports in its way, very little of it will fail to pay tribute to New York. Long before that period, the great money-centre of the world, which even now shows symptoms of the coming change,, will be transferred from London to New York,. and where that centre is, thither the workrs- traffic will come. But aside from its import- ance as the great money and exchange centre of the world, the improvements now pro- jected or in progress will make New York the greatest maritime port on the globe. With a land-locked bay of sufficient capacity and depth to permit the entire commercial 484 APPENDIX. marine of Christendom to ride at anchor in safety; with the broad and noble Hudson washing its western shore, and the strait , known as the East River pouring the waters of Long Island Sound into the ba)^ ; and both rivers spanned by lofty suspension bridges at various points,* and capacious tubular rail- ways crossing both rivers by a newly-con- trived tunnel; with the difficulties of navi- gation at Hurlgate all surmounted, and a channel deep enough for the largest ships, enabling the city to make' Long Island Sound another bay ; with a ship-canal 350 feet wide and 60 feet deep, connecting New- town Creek with the beautiful Canarsie I^ay, and thus giving full sixty miles of wharves and piers, accessible at all times, and all its suburbs as well as all parts of the city itself connected by swift railways in arcades, in tunnels, elevated upon iron pillars along its streets, or running in a belt outside the piers and above the height of the vessels which throng the wharves ; with its costly and beautiful warehouses, churches, banks, public institutions and residences, it will be the grandest city the world has ever seen, and worth a journey round the globe to see. * Description of the East River Bridge^ New York. Length of river span from center to center of tower, 1,600 feet. Length of each land span, 940 " Distance anchor walls, 3,480 " Length of New York approach, 1,441 " Length of Brooklyn approach, 941 " Total length from terminus to terminus,.. 5,862 " Ascent of New York approach per 100 ft., 'ij^Ts " Ascent of Brooklyn approach per 100 feet, Ij^i^ " Deflection of cable in summer, 150 " Elevation of grade in center of space in summer above high tide, 138 " Elevation of bridge in the clear, 135 " Elevation of floor in center of tower, 118 " Elevation of floor at anchorage, ^5 -/^ " Elevation of New York terminus, 36 " Elevation of Brooklyn terminus, 63 " Height of tower above floor, 150 " Total height above high-tide, balustrade not included, 268 " Foundation of tower below water level, New York side, HO " Foundation of tower below water level, Brooklyn, 40 " The weight of superstructure of the cen- tral span, as far as supported by the cables and stays, and including the weight of four steel cables, is equal to. . 3,483 tons. The maximum transitory ' weight which can at any one time come on the bridge by crowds of people on the road and footways, and the railway trains fully loaded, will be 1,2^0 " Making an aggregate of ,. 4,153 tons. But as a port of entry for China, Japau, and all Northeastern Asia, San Francisco will maintain her preeminence. Into her Golden Gate will enter the emigrant ships with their millions of Orientals, who will find their homes on American shores, and thither, too, the ships laden with all the, products of the East will come to deposit them for distribution over our own country and Europe. The commerce of Southern Europe, the Mediterranean, and the African Coast, will find in Norfolk a convenient and excellent port, and one of the finest harbors in the world, and that city will have a large and prosperous growth from its facilities for foreign commerce and internal communica- tion. As the entrepot of the vast riverine com- merce of the Mississippi Valley and the port from which the mineral, vegetable, and ani- mal products of that region are sent to all parts of the globe. New Orleans, with hei- recently-improved means of exit into the Gulf, will always command a commercial po- sition second to no city on the Atlantic slope except New York. The trans-continental rail- ways which are soon to terminate at San Diego, and its fine harbor, will call thither a large and constantly -growing traffic from Australia and the West Coast of South America. As to the ports now in Mexico, their growth will depend very much upon the greater stability of their government which will follow their annexation, and the infusion of American enterprise and energy into the languid and apathetic Mexican. Should the West India Islands become a part of the Republic, there will be two or three commercial ports of considerable importance there. Havana will of course retain its posi- tion, and Kingston, Jamaica, St. Thomas and Port au Prince or St. Domingo, all lying in the direct route between New York and the Darien Canal, will have the opportunity of becoming important seaports. CHAPTER Y. THE AGRICULTURE OP THE FUTURE. That Agriculture has made great progress in the past twenty-five years, in the United States, is undeniable ; but there have been two serious obstacles in the way of such progress as should have been attained ; the facility of bringing new land into cultivation whenever by repeated cropping and wasteful, 486 APPENDIX. hundred generations," and the thirsty soil, drinking in the rains and dews, will become like Eden for beauty and productiveness. In regard to the crops to be grown, there is no reason to suppose that there will be much that is new in the hundred years to come. A few new textiles, perhaps, the ramie, the new silky fibre, which yields such enormous crops, and possibly on the plains some of the cacti, or Agave tribes of fibres, such as the Ixilotl or the Sisal grass, some of the new nettles, which may prove more profitable as crops than our common hemp, and possibly some improved species or variety of cotton ; among grains, improved varieties of wheat, oats and barley, possibly the African dourra or millet, other and more productive varieties and species of maize, including perhaps that remarkable deep blue corn which Professor Newberry found among the Moquis ; new and better varieties of the sorghum and im- phee ; hardier varieties of the sugar-cane, which will bear a more northern climate ; tea, cofiee, the pomegranate, the banana or plantain, the olive and other tropical and semi-tropical plants, of which already there are plantations in Southern California ; sev- eral of the new and productive grasses, and all the varieties of the mulberry, as well as other plants which will furnish sufficient food for the silkworms. The culture of the grape, the production of silk, the rearing of the olive for its oil, and the cultivation of both tea and coffee, are destined to become marked features in our agricultural industry in the near future. So, too, will be the sugar cul- ture. The cane, the sorghum, the sugar-beet, and not improbably also maize, and some of the more saccharine melons or squashes, will all be laid under contribution for our supply of sweets. Sixty-two millions of dollars' worth of sugar were imported into the United States in 1868, beside all that was produced in the country. The time is not distant when, instead of importing, we shall export our sugars, and though the consumption of hardly any article of food increases so rap- idly, yet the increase of production, espe- cially if we annex, as we probably shall ere long, some of the West India Islands, will keep pace with it. The production of silk in the raw state, as well as its manufacture, is another form of agricultural industry which will become prominent in a few years. Our Pacific States are favorably situated for the rearing of the silk-worm, as well as some of the Territories east of the Rocky Mountains. The cultivation of textile fibres, cotton, ramie, hemp, spartina, &c., will for a hundred years to come continue to be an important part of our agricultural products, though probably they will never again so entirely engross the labor of any section as cotton did before the war. Viniculture, or cultivation of the grape for wine, has already attained a magnitude which promises within a few years to make us independent of Europe in the production of wines and brandies. That it will reach its highest point within twenty years is prob- able, though it can not fail to be always a great and powerful interest. The culture of the grasses and the traffic in them is an in- terest of greater importance than is generally supposed. The hay crop of the country is one of its most valuable, perhaps the most valuable of its vegetable products. Its sale and consumption away from the place of its growth, is bad husbandry, only to be par- tially atoned for by the most bountiful use of fertilizers from abroad ; but without it our cattle, horses and sheep could scarcely exist. California and several of the Terri- tories of the great plains have no natural grasses, or at least none which form a sod. The long dry season parches them and kills their roots. The wild rice, wild oats, alfalfa, and other introduced grasses and grains, make up for the deficiency, and as the do- mestic animals of these countries seldom require shelter, there is not much hay need- ed. The introduction of some foreign grasses within a few years to come is probable, though not many of them are really superior to what we now have. Stock-raising is likely to be for some years to come a favorite occupation with many of our farmers. Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and portions of Arizona, Texas, the Indian Territory, and much of Kansas and Nebraska, as well as the greater part of Oregon and Washington Ter- ritory, and California, are well adapted to this pursuit. It is, however, the lowest form of agriculture, and tends so greatly to a half- nomadic life and to the barbarisms connected with it, and requires, moreover, such vast tracts of territory for its successful prosecu- tion, that as the population becomes dense, it must gradually diminish in importance. We are, as a nation, the greatest meat-eaters in the world, with the exception perhaps of the Guachos, or half-civilized hunters of the South American pampas, who subsist entire- ly on animal food. Even our poorest classes APPENDIX. 487 jaave meat once or twice a day, while the peasants and lowest classes of Belgium, France, and Sweden, hardly taste meat once in six months. Whether this fondness for a meat diet will continue to prevail, is some- what doubtful. The Chinese, Japanese, and indeed the Oriental nations generally, are more abstemious than we are. With most of them, rice, with some condiments, is the principal article of diet, though occasionally they eat the flesh of the smaller animals, if able to pay for the luxury. Should they pre- serve their present habits, the demand for beef, mutton and pork would not keep pace with the increase of our population, and this would be well, for we should not be able to spare from cultivation the immense tracts which would be required for the rearing of these great herds. The live stock of the United States in 1869 was, according to the report of the Com- missioner of Agriculture, 6,332,793 horses, valued at $533,024,787; 921,662 mules, valued at $98,386,359 ; 21,433,095 beeves, valued at $667,964,149 ; 37,728,279 sheep, valued at $82,139,979; and 23,316,476 swine, valued at $146,188,755. We can hardly be far out of the way if we estimate the numbers in 1969, as 97,000,000 horses, 14,000,000 mules, 336,000,000 beeves, 400,- 000,000 sheep, and 368,000,000 swine. It will be borne in mind that though these numbers might be in excess of what would be required for supplying the needs of the six or seven hundred millions of our own people, the export demand would unques- tionably be large, and would undoubtedly consume whatever we had to spare. We have purposely estimated the increase of sheep as less than that of the other animals, for two reasons ; the other textile fabrics coming into use will considerably diminish the consump- tion of wool, and the increase of flocks of sheep is, when unrestraine \ so great that to avoid a glut in the market, it is often neces- sary to take special measures to reduce it ; thus in Australia, where the facilities for gra- zing are very similar to those of Texas, Ari- zona and New Mexico, the increase of sheep had been so greatly in excess of the demand that the settlers have found it necessary to erect immense vats heated by steam, in which they boil down hundreds of thousands of carcasses of sheep simply for the tallow. Such measures would soon reduce the num- ber of sheep within reasonable bounds. The production of machines, driven by steam or horse-power, for agricultural pur- poses, though already an interest of great extent, is destined to receive an astonishing development. The vast plains, prairies and plateaus of Nebraska, Kansas, Dakota, Colo- rado, Wyoming, Idaho, Montana, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona, will be broken up by the steam-plow, doing the work of fifty men and a hundred horses at once, and never tiring till the arable lands are all furrowed, pulverized and harrowed by its agency. The steam-sower, steam-cultivator, and steam- mowers, reapers, binders, threshers, and dig- gers, will garner the crops with a celerity and certainty which could never have been accomplished with hand labor. But we need not confine ourselves to steam. Other mo- tive powers, more compact, more manage- able, less expensive, and less dangerous, may and probably will take the place of steam for these and other purposes, and it will thus be possible to cultivate these vast regions thor- oughly and easily, when, if they had been explored and settled twenty-five or thirty years ago, they must long have remained untilled from the scarcity of labor. The agriculture of the future is destined to be a grand success. The 900,000,000 bushels of Indian corn, our most distinctively American crop, which were produced in 1868, will have increased to 15,000,000,000 in 1970; the 225,000,000 bushels of wheat will have multiplied to 3,300,000,000 ; and 4,000,000,000 bushels of oats will be neces- sary to supply the wants of the 97,000,000 horses, and the other animals and human beings with whom it is an article of food. Barley, already becoming a favorite grain on the Pacific coast, will yield not less than 400,000,000 bushels, and buckwheat, relished alike by oriental and western palates in its season, will hardly fall behind barley in quantity. Rye will not probably increase so fast, but may attain to 250,000,000 bushels. Of the root crops, potatoes, the most impor- tant of our esculents, will average 1,500,- 000,000 bushels and possibly more ; the beet, including its use for sugar, will perhaps attain to 1,000,000,000, and the diff'erent varieties of the turnip, to 500,000,000 or 600,000,- 000. Hay, of which our average product is now about 26,000,000 tons, will not increase in quantity so much as other crops, since, in most of the Central and Southern regions, the live stock does not require shelter. To- bacco will, in default of more potent stimu- lants, continue to be the beloved but noxious 488 APPENDIX. weed of tlie millions of our inhabitants, though there is clanger that the Chinese may substitute the far more baneful opium for it. It is difficult to estimate the tobacco crop of 1970, because we can not be certain how many tobacco-producing countries may be annexed by that time. If we state it at 5,- 000,000,000 pounds, we shall be undoubt- edly below the quantity which will actually be produced. The quantity of cotton then grown is still more doubtful, since it remains to be seen what proportion of our new lands can profitably be devoted to cotton, and what other textiles may take its place in the man- ufacture of dress goods. We should not be inclined to fix the production of 1970 above 20,000,000 bales, and probably this quantity would be consumed at home. Of minor crops, it is impossible to speak with any certainty. Some of them may and probably will, attain to a magnitude which will enable them to rank with the great sta- ples of our present agriculture. Others may fall off to the most insignificant proportions. But as a whole, there can be no reasonable doubt that the agriculture of a hundred years hence will more than keep pace with the population in quality, quantity, and excel- lence. CHAPTER YI. MANUFACTURES IN THE FUTURE. There is more difficulty in determining de- finitely what will be the increase and prog- ress of manufactures in this country for the next hundred years than in predicting the progress of any other form of national in- dustry. Manufactures are so much stimu- lated or depressed by tariff regulations, so much influenced by popular taste and de- mand, and so much controlled by new inven- tions and discoveries, that apart from stating the general fact that there must be in most branches of manufacture an enormous devel- opment, it is hardly safe to make any specific predictions. We might illustrate these fluc- tuations by a reference to the manufacture of iron in the past; in 1842, 800,000 tons were produced in the United States; in 1852, 564,000 tons; in 1856, 874,428 tons; in 1861, 731,564 tons; in 1865, 931,582 tons; and in 1869, 1,950,000 tons. These fluctuations were produced, in a very large degree, by the varying duty on foreign iron of the classes which came most directly in competition with the products of our own foundries. There was a time when blanket shawls of American manufacture were in great demand, and our woolen manufactories could not make enough of them ; that demand has now ceased, and the manufacturer who should attempt to revive it would find himself swamped very soon by the accumulation of his stock. Twenty years ago, the mowing, reaping and harvesting machines, the horse- rakes and hay tedders, were just struggling into existence, and the sale of them did not exceed a hundred or so a year. Now the harvests of the Western prairies as well as of many of our Eastern farms are wholly gath* ered by machinery, and though this manu- facture is yet in its infancy, and is destined to become a hundred-fold what it now is, the sales already amount to many millions every year. In 1860, the manufacture of coal oil had reached an annual production of $478,695 — kerosene oil and its cognates were hardly heard of. In 1868, 74,774,291 gallons Jf petroleum oils were exported, of a value of $30,000,000, while the home consumption of this and the other products of the crude pe- troleum must have amounted to as much more. Here was a manufacture which had multiplied its products one hundred and twenty-five times in eight years. Sewing- machines, invented in 1846 by Elias Howe, had not attained to a noticeable amount oiF sales in 1850; in 1860 the annual product was $276,235. In 1869 the three companies known as the " Combination ;" the Singer Co., the Wheeler & Wilson Co., and the Grover & Baker Co., report sales amounting to over $8,000,000, and the whole business approximates very nearly to $20,000,000. Here again is an increase of eighty fold in nine years. The development of the trade in reed instruments, melodeons, harmoniums, cabinet organs, &c., is nearly as great in pro- portion, and that in pianos but little less. The manufacture of American watches, which in 1860 was not of sufficient magni- tude to find a place in the census report, had in 1869 become so important as to supply a little more than one-half the demand, in value marketing nearly $5,000,000 worth a year. The direct manufacture of iron and steel in their various marketable forms, including all articles made solely of iron in this coun- try, was, in 1868, $147,621,251. With the finest iron ores in the world, and in close APPENDIX. 489 proximity to mines of coal admirably adapted for smelting purposes, we shall be much to blame if within the next ten years we do not manage to supply our home demand for iron and steel, which is increasing with unprece- dented rapidity. The demand for steel rails for the railroads already in operation, and those to be built in the next two years, will, the railroad men say, be 150,000 tons, worth not less than $12,000,000, and of iron rails in the same time, 1,200,000 tons, worth over $60,000,000. The iron and steel for loco- motives, car- wheels, trucks, and cars for these railroads, will consume not less than $60,- 000,000 more, making at the very lowest estimate $132,000,000 worth of iron in two years, or $66,000,000 per annum for the next two years for railroad purposes alone. Add to this our annual consumption of iron and steel for other purposes, amounting in 1868 to $132,000,000, and increasing every year, and the consumption of American iron in 1870 can not fall short of $200,000,000. A writer in the Boston Commercial Bulletin estimates from existing data that our con- sumption of American iron for all manu- facturing purposes (including railroad bars) in 1900 will be $600,000,000. The esti- mate is certainly much below the truth; but adopting it as a basis, we should have our manuftictures of iron in 1920 of an annual value of $1,200,000,000 ; in 1 940, of an an- nual value of $2,400,000,000 ; in 1960, of $4,800,000,000, and in 1970, of $7,200,000,- 000. We shall certainly do better than that, but the estimate itself is large enough to startle us. The manufactures of cotton will not in all probability increase in anything like so rapid a ratio, unless some new uses should be dis- covered for cotton which would greatly stim- ulate both its production and consumption ; yet in view of the probability that it will continue to form the basis of the clothing of the great mass of the nation, and its use for bedding, for sails, and for so many other purposes, we are justified in believing that the manufacture will keep very nearly an even pace with the increase of the population. It was about $120,000,000 in value in 1860, and can not well be less than $2,000,000,000 in the amount of its annual products in 1970, or somewhat more than the entire annual value of all our manufactured products in 1860. In woolen goods there has been a greater variation than in cottons. Many of the de- scriptions of woolen dress goods, or those composed in part of wool and part of cotton, silk or linen, are now manufactured success- fully here, while ten years ago we were de- pendent upon Great Britain, France or Ger- many for them ; others are still beyond our present ability to manufacture successfully. In the articles of woolen underwear, and in delaines, broadcloths, doeskins, cheap pop- lins, blankets, &c., there has been a fierce struggle between American and foreign man- ufacturers, and the foreign manufacturers, in order to drive our goods from the market and break our manufacturers, have sent their goods to the United States in immense quan- tities at less than actual cost, in the hope of being able to make a large profit when they had defeated competition. Heavy losses have been inflicted on both sides by this policy, but for the most part, though at the cost of individual failures, the American production has been kept up, and the foreign goods driven from the market. The production of woolen goods in 1860 was reported by the census as about $70,000,000. The produo- tion of army clothing during the war greatly increased it, so that at one time our produc- tion of woolen goods must have amounted to nearly $300,000,000. The depression since that time has reduced the annual product, according to the best estimates, to about $160,000,000 in 1868, and possibly to not more than $150,000,000 in 1869. For the future, notwithstanding some fluctuations, we may confidently hope that our constantly improving machinery, our higher attain- ments in chemical knowledge for the coloring of these goods, and in the principles of taste, and advance in artistic skill in designs, will enable us soon to command our own market by the production of goods whose quality, durability of color, and taste in design, shall satisfy the most fastidious buyer. If we can do this, we may be assured of a demand for more than $2,500,000,000 worth of these goods in 1970. The manufacture of clothing has been largely developed within the past ten years. In 1860, it was reported at about $88,000,- 000. Since that time, not only has the cost of most articles of clothing more than doub- led, and the amount of work on them greatly increased, but the manufacture of under- clothing for both sexes, of collars, cuff's, and fine shirts, for men, and the entire production of walking suits, and dresses of all descrip- tions, cloaks, children's clothing, &c., been 490 APPET!?DIX. almost created. The war stimulated produc- tion in these directions, and once established, it has maintained itself. This trade at the present time produces not less than $300,- 000,000 worth of goods annually, and as the proportion of these goods to the population must, both from the requirements of life and the depreciation in the value of money, be much greater than now, we are warranted in believing that the annual product of clothing in 1970 will be above rather than below $6,000,000,000. The silk manufacture is just obtaining a foothold here. We have, it is true, for near- ly twenty years, manufactured a considerable portion of our sewing silk, producing in 1860 $3,600,000 worth of that indispensable arti- cle ; we had done something also in the way of silk gimps, fringes, and trimmings, and perhaps a little in the way of ribbons, but our production of all these was less than $3,000,000 in 1860. Dress silks, piece goods, beltings, and the finer ribbons, had not at that time been produced in any appre- ciable quantities. Now there are about 1,500,000 yards of dress silks manufactured here, perhaps half a million pieces of ribbons, and most of the dress trimmings, hat bands, braids, serges, bullion trimmings and car- riage trimmings, as well as the silk plush for hats and bonnets required in our markets. The sewing silks have nearly driven the for- eign article out of our markets. The manu- factures of silk and of mixed goods partly of silk in the year 1870 will not fall below $25,000,000. For the first time in our his- tory we are, on the Pacific coast, producing, on a considerable and rapidly-increasing scale, our own cocoons, and the influx of Japanese, accustomed to rearing the silk- worm, will make this in a few years, in that cUmate and soil, a favorite pursuit. Our fa- cilities for obtaining the raw silk from China and Japan are now superior to those of any of the European manufacturers. We may then feel justified in predicting for 1970 a production of silk goods of not less than $500,000,000. The hat manufacture has had great vicis- situdes in the past ten years, at some times in the full tide of an unexampled success, and at others remarkably depressed. It amounted to about $17,600,000 in 1860, and in 1863 or 1864 had more than doubled that amount. Since that time it has undergone great depression, and is still far from pros- perous. Yet its present annual production can not well be less than $30,000,000. As in all probability the men of 1970 will require some sort of head-gear, for we can not well suppose that, like the Abyssinians, they will butter their hair and go bareheaded, we may con- clude perhaps that the increase in the busi- ness will keep pace with the population, and put it at $480,000,000. This may very pos> sibly be an under-estimate, as the only hats now imported in any quantity, the " Pana- ma," or as they are sometimes called, " Guay- aquil " straw or grass hats, may then be very largely made in our own territory. One of the most extensive industrial oper- ations in our country is the tanning or prep- aration of leather and the manufacture of boots and shoes. These two branches of manufacture in 1860 produced an annual amount of about $1 70,000,000, viz., $78,000,- 000 of leather, and $92,00Q,000 worth of boots and shoes, to which "^may be added over a million more for leather gloves. The old proverb says, "There is nothing like leather," and though a great variety of other substances have been tried for the various purposes for which leather is used, yet noth- ing thus far has taken its place permanently or to any very great extent. Yet the price of leather is advancing steadily and pretty rapidly. It is worth now double what it was before the war, and the fall in gold does not reduce its price materially. There may be no falling off in the supply of hides, but the materials necessary to the proper tanning of them are diminishing in quantity and in- creasing in price. It is a question whether leather enough can be produced a century hence to supply the various demands for it of a population of 639,000,000 ; if it can, it will be a' a great advance on present prices. We are justified in believing that the leather product of 1970 will not be worth less than $2,000,000,000, and the boots, shoes, and gloves of the same year as much more. The manufacture of india-rubber goods is one of those branches of industry which has made immense progress within ten years past. The whole history of vulcanized rub- ber is comprised within less than thirty years ; its practical adaptation to any thing except shoes and clothing within less than twenty, and its use in almost every depart- ment of the useful arts belongs to the last ten. The "hard rubber" has been found admirable for every purpose for which ivory, bone, the ornamental woods, leather, bois duree^ or most of the metals had been pre- APPENDIX. 491 viously used ; while the more flexible soft rubber has an infinitude of applications for which other materials had been used with less advantage, as well as to very many for which nothing else would answer. In 1860, the annual production was stated at |5,642,- VOO, a sum even then considerably below the truth. The production of vulcanized rubber and gutta percha in the United States at the present time, (aside from the very large for- eign manufacture under the Goodyear pat- ents,) is above rather than below $25,000,- 000, and as new sources of supply of the raw material have been discovered recently, there seems no reason why it should not continue to increase as rapidly as the population, and reach 1400,000,000 in 1970. Clocks, watches, and jewelry, though dis- tinct branches of manufacture, are usually classed together. The manufacture of the better class of clocks, those of the grade cor- responding to the French parlor clocks, has been first brought to perfection within the past five years. The watch manufacture, as we have already observed elsewhere, has made great strides since 1860; and many descriptions of jewelry are now, by the aid of machinery, brought to a perfection which would not have been deemed possible ten years since. As belonging to the same gen- ei'al class of manufactures, we may mention also solid silver and gold plate, and silver- plated and Britannia ware, and the manufac- ture of gold pens. In 1860 these various branches of manufacture produced annually about $24,000,000. Their present produc- tion would be understated at $45,000,000, and they are articles for the most part of lux- ury, which will be in demand to a greater and greater extent as the nation increases in wealth. We estimate their production in 1970 at not less than $800,000,000. Carriages are, to a considerable extent, objects of luxury, and in the abundance and constant multiplication of our other means of locomotion, we might expect that they would not increase in their production as rapidly as articles of necessity ; but the fact seems to be otherwise. The annual value in 1860 was $27,265,000, of which about $375,000 was for children's carriages, dolls' carriages, &c. This branch of the business alone now produces annually more than $5,000,000 worth, and the aggregate production is about $50,000,- 000. We can not tell how soon the steam locomotive or some new motor may take the place of the horse before our pleasure car- riages, -but we think we are warranted in the opinion that in 1970 the value of the pleas- ure carriages of all sorts will not fall below $800,000,000. The manufacture oi furniture for dwelling houses, churches, halls and schools has made great advances in the past ten years. More costly woods, more elaborate designs, and more skillful inlaid and ornamental work, have greatly enhanced the price of the better qualities, and the demand for showy and cheap furniture has led to the manufacture of vast quantities of trash, which found a ready sale to those who buy a thing because it is cheap. The census of 1860 gives the value of the furniture manufactured that year as $25,632,293, and we are assured by the most intelligent men in the trade that it has more than doubled within ten years. The growing scarcity of choice woods, and the increasing labor of the finish justify an esti- mate of $1,000,000,000, as the annual pro- duct a hundred years hence. Furnaces, ranges, heaters, grates, and steam or hot-water heating apparatus, with their accompaniments of registers, ventilators, and hot-air pipes, have within a few years past become necessities of modern and fashion- ably-constructed dwellings, as well as of churches, schools, halls, theaters, and hotels. This class of manufactures have increased in importance very rapidly during the past ten years, and the annual product, which in 1860 was a little below $2,000,000, can not now be less than $16,000,000. Some simpler and less expensive mode of heating and ven- tilating our dwellings and public buildings may be devised, accomplishing the desired result by electrical, philosophical, or chemical means ; but whatever that mode may be, it will not in all probability dispense with much of the apparatus now in use for these pur- poses, and we are clearly below the probable truth when we estimate the annual product of these and other apparatus for effecting the same purpose at $300,000,000 in 1970. From heating and ventilation the transition is easy and natural to the manufacture of illuminating fluids and gases, and the pipes, fixtures, chandeliers and lamps, by means of which the illumination is effected. The an- nual product of these various industries in 1860 was about $24,000,000. Since that time, gas has been introduced into almost every city or town of 5,000 inhabitants, and its use has become far more general than ever before : the manufacture of gas fixtures 492 APPENDIX. and gas-pipe, as well as of chandeliers and brackets of the costliest description, has become a leading branch of manufactures ; kerosene oil, in the peculiar lamps and sta- tionary burners for its use, has become the staple illuminating article for all towns, vil- lages and country hamlets not large enough to have gas-works, and the present annual production of all can not be less than $60,- 000,000. Here again, it is difficult to pred- icate with any certainty in regard to the future. We may be, we probably are, on the eve of great discoveries in regard to illu- mination ; the electric light, the magnesian light, or some yet undiscovered illuminator, may replace very shortly our present expensive and unsatisfactory means of illumination, and enable us to dispense with costly burners and chandeliers, and satisfy ourselves with some simple and inexpensive fixture. Without something of this sort, our annual production, to keep pace with the increase of population, would have to be about $1,000,000,000 in 1970. But while we have been stocking, furnish- ing, heating, ventilating, and illuminating our dwellings in the future, we have paid no attention to the manufacture of the materials of which the houses themselves are composed. The annual product of hrick and brick ma- chinery ml^QO was $27,228,746. The in- vention and application of better processes, the greatly-enhanced price of the product, and the rapidly-growing demand, have given to this manufacture a wonderful impulse dur- ing the past ten years. Its two branches, the making of bricks, and the making of brick machinery, now yield an annual pro- duct of more than $65,000,000, and as there is little probability that our successors for a hundred years to come will substitute any thing else for them, in building, we may safely conclude that the annual product of bricks and brick machinery in 1970 will not be less than 1,200,000,000. Marble and stone work in 1860 yielded an Annual product of $16,244,044. With the increase of luxury and wealth, there is a much greater demand for these costly materials for building, and new quarries are constantly opening. The use of various kinds of arti- ficial stone is also slowly increasing, and when processes, now imperfect, shall have been brought to perfection, it will undoubt- edly be far greater than it now is. Judging from the developments of the last ten years, we should say that the annual product of ^ pur- !500,- natural and artificial stone for building poses in 1970 would not be less than \ 000,000. The manufacture of sawed and planed lumber in 1860, produced for that year the value of $104,928,342. To this is to be added a little more than $7,000,000 for ship timber, shingles and lath, making a grand total of $112,000,000, and this exclusive of large imports of lumber from Canada. The product in 1869 was more than $200,000,- 000 in value, partly from the enhanced price and partly from the greatly increased con- sumption. This can not last, however, for our forests are perceptibly diminishing, and our people are awaking to the fact that the destruction of our forests must lead to the depopulation of large tracts of country. For many purposes, iron and papier mache are now taking the place of wood, and necessity will increase these applicaHons. We can hardly suppose that the great population of the country in 1970 will use more than double the quantity of lumber that is used at the present time, but they will have to pay at least four times as much for it, so that the money value of the lumber product of that year will not be less than $1,600,000,000. But we have not yet done with the dwell- ing-houses and public buildings. The nails and spikes for fastening, produced in 1860, were of the value of $9,857,223 ; the sash, doors and blinds were worth $9,601,607 ; the lime and plaster, $4,959,359 ; the builders' hardware, $10,903,106 ; the slate and other roofing, $1,313,000 ; and other small items, such as sewer pipe, copper boilers, faucets, mantels, &c. &c., an aggregate of $1,600,000 more, making a grand total of $38,134,295. The production of these articles in 1869 was certainly not less than $70,000,000, and in 1970 will not fall below $1,125,000,000, Houses built of such costly materials can not be considered as furnished without one or more* musical instruments. We find that in the year 1860 there were $7,548,300 worth of musical instruments manufactured in the United States. In the ten years that fol- lowed, the piano manufacture had more than doubled in quantity, and there was also a material advance in prices. The cabinet organs were first made within the past ten years, and the melodeons, cottage organs, and harmoniums, had multiplied both their numbers and their good qualities many times. The value of the production of musical in- struments in 1869 was over $18,000,000, of Appendix. 493 which nearly $13,000,000 was in pianos, and about $4,000,000 in reed instruments. The piano or cabinet organ, or both, are now re- garded ahnost as a necessity in every decent house, and the demand for them is growing with great rapidity. That $300,000,000 worth of these instruments will not more than supply the demand for 1970 may be consid- ered certain. The sewing machine, ten years ago a lux- ury in the private family, and but just begin- ning to be fully appreciated by the manufac- turer, is now the cherished servant of almost every family. The production of 1860 was valued at $4,247,820 ; that of 1869 exceeded $18,000,000, a single manufacturer selling over 100,000 machines. The sewing machine of 1970 will doubtless be a great improve- ment upon that of to-day in its abihty to do a greater variety of work, and will certainly reach $240,000^000 in the value of its annual production. Let us proceed next to manufactures of articles of food. Of these, flour and bread- stuffs occupy the first place, and form the largest single item of our manufactures.- In 1860, though flour was at a moderate price and the wheat crop unusually large, the value of the flour and meal produced was $248,- 580,365. In 1869, also a year of moderate prices, the value of the production of bread- stuffs was over $400,000,000. In 1970, while they may possibly include the flour of some new cereal, the total product will hardly be of less value than $6,500,000,000, including starch, farina, and corn starch, which together in 1860 yielded a value of nearly $4,000,000, and rice flour, which amounted to $775,000 the same year. The manufacture oi provisions^ such as cut, smoked, dried, and pickled meats, sausages, head cheese, &c., is one of very considerable amount, and is increasing. In 1860 its value was $31,986,483, and in 1869 it had increas- ed to nearly $50,000,000. Allied to this is the preparation of canned vegetables, fruits, meats, and fish, and of concentrated and des- iccated vegetables, meat essences, milk, cof- fee, &c. These goods have been prepared almost wholly within the last ten years, and the traffic in them has attained a great mag- nitude. The value of them in 1869 was es- timated at somewhat more than $18,000,000. What other devices may be resorted to for preserving meats and vegetables, can not now be foretold, but in all probability the annual amount of manufactured provisions of all sorts, in 1970, will be at least $1,000,000,- 000. Butter and cheese, from being home pro- ducts, have come to be largely produced in factories. There are said to be between thir- teen hundred and fourteen hundred of these factories now in the United States, producing butter and cheese to the value of over $10,- 000,000 annually. The home manufacture is probably nearly or quite double this. The aggregate value of these useful articles in 1970 will not probably fall below $450,000,- 000. The manufacture of the means or vehicles of locomotion come next in order. We have already spoken of pleasure carriages and chil- dren's carriages, but locomotives, railroad cars, omnibusses, car-wheels, wagons and carts, of which in 1860 there were produced $19,869,800, have increased in a most extra- ordinary ratio within the last ten years. The great development of railroads has kept up a demand for locomotives and railroad cars which has tasked the ability of the largest manufacturers to supply ; the manufacture of car-wheels, in its infancy in 1860, has now grown to be a prominent interest ; the build- ing of cars for the city or horse railroads, now employs the entire time and resources of six or seven large firms ; and the railroad building, the war, and the exigences of trade, have given great activity to the manufacture of wagons and carts. The production of velocipedes and other vehicles of self-propul- sion has had its rise and growth almost wholly within the past five years. The pro- duction of these articles in 1869, though the year was one of moderate business, exceeded in value $60,000,000. The uncertainty in regard to our means of locomotion in the future makes an estimate of the production of 1970 somewhat difficult ; the steam loco- motive may then be entirely superseded, the ponderous railroad car may be replaced by a carriage combining extreme lightness and strength, and this may be propelled under the earth in tubes or above it on elevated railways, or through the air ; heavy freight may be sent to its destination, in spheres or by some other more rapid and easy mode than the heavy lumbering cart, while the emigrant's wagon, the " prairie schooner," will only be remembered by the " oldest in- habitant," or perpetuated in the paintings of Parley and Bierstadt and Johnson. But however this may be, there will be a demand for some means of locomotion and propulsion, 494 APPENDIX. and probably of cost proportionate to those now in use, and we think $950,000,000 is not an extravagant estimate for the produc- tion of 1970. The manufacture of machinery has been for many years a constantly-increasing business, but it has attained a magnitude during the past ten years in the United States greater than in any other country in the world. In 1 860, its annual production exceeded $53,- 600,000. In 1870, it is more than $125,- 000,000. The great development of rail- roads, and the means of locomotion, of cot- ton, woolen and silk manufactures, agricul- tural implements and machines, of the paper- trade, of stationary and marine steam-engines, of fire-arms, sewing-machines, iron buildings, mining enterprises, petroleum wells, grain elevators, suspension and other bridges, and a thousand other enterprises, all requiring machinery for their prosecution, has given "a vast impulse to this branch of business. That its progress in the future will be rapid is cer- tain, and $2,500,000,000 is the lowest esti- mate of its annual production in 1970. Fire-arms^ from the tiniest pistol to the twenty-inch cannon, have been unfortunately in great demand during a portion of the past ten years. This manufacture was not fairly represented in 1860 ; the value of the fire- arms made that year in 239 establishments, stated in the census at $2,362,681, was really exceeded in the manufactories of the city of Hartford, Conn., alone. During the war the business attained a magnitude at one time of over $75,000,000 of annual production ; it subsequently fell off materially, but taking the government and private manufactories together, it probably does not fall below $35,000,000, if we include under the same head what are known as mihtary goods, swords, epaulets, sashes, equipments, and munitions of war. The multiplication of deadly weapons, though a necessity, is not so desirable as some other branches of manufac- ture, but its increase will probably pretty nearly keep pace with that of the population, and may attain to an annual product of $500,000,000 per annum. The putting up of spirituous hquors, wines, malt liquors, distilled, rectified, and cordials, and too frequently their manufacture from spurious and poisonous materials, has always been a very large business. In 1860 it was reported in the census at about $53,000,000, which was unquestionably far below the truth. At the present time the actual pro- duction is of the value of not less than $300,- 000,000 annually. That its future increase may not keep pace with that of the popula- tion, every good citizen will most earnestly desire, but that it will reach $2,500,000,000 by 1970, is altogether too probable. The manufacture of paper, an important interest for many years past, and producing in 1860 an annual amount of $23,450,000, has rapidly increased within ten years past, while its price has been materially enhanced. The great use of it for paper collars and cuff's, for the manufacture of papier mache, for cartridges, for stereotyping, and the enor- mous increase of books, periodicals, and newspapers, have led to a very marked ad- vance in its production. We are not aware that there are any very accurate statistics of the amount produced in 1869, yet it could not well have been less than $64,000,000. Six or seven establishments used nearly $1,000,000 worth a year each, and so many thousands were using large quantities, that the aggregate consumption must have been enormous. This consumption of paper is likely to increase faster than the population, and we do not overstate in making the pro- duction of 1970, $1,200,000,000. Printing and publishing, with their allied branches of industry, engraving, lithograph- ing, book-binding, type and stereotype- founding and electrotyping, have attained a wonderful development within the past ten years. In 1860, the annual product of these connected manufactures was $39,092,348. The war and the prosperous times which fol- lowed for three years, stimulated production to the utmost. Newspapers and periodicals attained a prodigious circulation, and books "about the war" sold by hundreds of thou- sands. In 1865 and 1866, the annual pro- duction of these branches of trade went up to nearly $150,000,000. In 1868 and 1869, there was a material falling off", but there is no probability that the production has or will fall below $100,000,000. The power of the . press is realized to a far greater extent than it ever was before ; and the more general dif- fusion of education has not only stimulated the sale of school-books beyond all former precedent, but has opened a new and great demand for general literature. Another fea- ture of the progress of the publishing busi- ness is, that apart from the general period- icals, whose circulation has materially in- creased, every profession, trade, and depart- ment of industry, as well as every consider- APPENDIX. 495 able benevolent enterprise, bas its own special organ, published weekly or monthly, (and many of them more than one,) and in almost every case these special periodicals find a liberal support. Most of these professions, trades and occupations, too, bave their own special literature, books prepared especially for them and intended to tbrow ligbt on their duties and labors. The conviction that there were some processes by which the sun pic- tures or copies could be utilized for the re- production, without much additional labor, of engravings, old manuscripts, or printed books, drawings, designs, &c., has led during the past year to the invention and perfecting of processes of photolithography, heliotypy, and other plans of accomplishing this pur- pose. These have now come into a position where they can produce excellent work with great rapidity and at a low price. The prac- tice of the art of chromo-lithography, in this country, dates wholly within the last decade, and it has already attained a high degree of excellence, and its products are in great de- mand. The arts of printing and publishing, and those manufactures and professions directly connected with them, must continue to grow certainly as rapidly as our population, and, we think, more rapidly. We are not inclined to put their annual production below $1,600,- 000,000 in 1970. Chemicals J paints^ dye-woods and dye-stuffs form a very important department of trade, and one stimulated into extraordinary activ- ity by the events of the past ten years. The discovery of new chemicals of world-wide use ; of new manures, chemically prepared ; of new paints and painting materials, and of the whole class of anihne dyes, and com- pounds now numbering about one hundred and fifty distinct preparations ; the forceful and destructive fulminates and explosive pre- parations devised, some of them for torpe- does or shells in the war, and now used for blasting and mining purposes, the new anaes- thetics, and a thousand other recent chemical inventions, indicate the activity which per- vades the whole body of chemical technolo- gists. New chemical writers are springing up every where, and all find abundant work. In 1860, the annual production of chemicals, paints, dye-woods and dye-stuffs, was stated at $14,190,446. The estimate was even then too low, but in 1869 it had attained a mag- nitude of over $30,000,000. In 1970 it will not be less than $500,000,000. Intimately connected with the manufacture of chemicals is that of drugs, patent medi- cines, perfumery, and mineral waters. These, in 1860, reported a production of $6,240,914. The introduction of many new chemically- prepared drugs into medical practice, the successful advertising which has created a vast demand for many proprietary medicines, often of little or no intrinsic value, the intro- duction of numerous new mineral waters to the public, and the skillful compounding of artificial waters having the same ingredients and proportions with the most celebrated European mineral springs, and the invention of new perfumes, have greatly enlarged the business within ten years past. Single houses in the trade have sold from one to two mill- ion dollars' worth of their own preparations within a year, and the aggregate sales of 1869 were not less than $16,000,000. We can not expect that men will need, or at all events will take, less medicine in the future than in the past ; nor that they will be less gullible and disposed to swallow the nostrums which are largely advertised ; nor is it prob- able that the toilet perfumes will ever go out of fashion; so that we may predict with con- siderable certainty that the production of these will about keep pace with the increase of the population. We shall h^ve, then, a production in 1970 of about $240,000,000. Another and somewhat coarser manufac- ture, that of soap, candles, paraffin wax, and glycerine, is also intimately connected with the production of chemicals. Some of its processes are cleanly and delicate enough, while others are dirty and repulsive. In 1860, the annual product was reported as $18,464,574. Since that time new varieties of soaps and new uses for them have been invented, such as the carbolic and cresylic soaps, for healing, disinfecting and bleaching purposes, and as a sheep dip, the medicated soaps largely used for cutaneous affections, the glycerine soaps for toilet purposes, the emery soaps for cleaning and polishing met- als, &c., &c. The manufacture of glycerine has become very important, and that of pa- raffin wax has largely taken the place of spermaceti. The soap and candle manufac- ture now yields annually over $30,000,000, and its increase is sure and will be steady. We mav put it down at $480,000,000 in 1970. The manufacture of saddlery and harnesses^ and that of trunks, carpet bags, portmanteaus and reticules, which is often associated with 496 APPENDIX. it, is an important industry. In 1 860 the an- nual product of these two manufactures was $17,494,797. During the war, and since, in the construction of railroads and emigration to the plains, the demand for these goods, es- pecially the saddles and harnesses, has greatly increased, and it must continue a steady and healthy increase for a hundred years to come, reaching by 1970 an annual production of not less than $450,000,000. The production of glass and glass ware^ porcelain^ stone china, pottery, and other fictile wares, has become a very important industry within a few years past. In 1860 the annual production of these wares was $11,515,836. Since that time the production of the better sort of porcelain ware has been greatly in- creased, and plate glass, as well as very supe- rior cut-glass, has been produced. Within two or three years past, a new class of goods, known as "hot cast porcelain" have been largely manufactured, combining the mellow translucency of china with the other good qualities of glass, and a toughness and strength much greater than that of either glass or porcelain, while its price is mar- velously low. It has at once attained to a large sale. The present production of fictile wares is not less than $20,000,000, and in 1970 will not fall below $300,000,000. Another important industry is that of the production of edge tools, axes, cutlery, sur- gical and dental instruments, joiners' tools, scythes, saws, shovels, spades, hoes, pickaxes, &c., (fee. Of some of these we have almost the monopoly, sending our Collins axes, Ames shovels, and our picks, scythes and spades, to all parts of the world, and com- pletely occupying the markets. In 1860 we made these goods to the value of $8,632,149, and the necessities of the war, the Pacific and other railways, and the new mining re- gions, have greatly increased the demand. The annual production is not less than $14,- 000,000 now, and in 1970 will probably be about $225,000,000. The cooper's art is the only other large manufacture of which we have space now to speak. In 1860 the manufactures coming under the general head of cooperage amount- ed to $11,352,321. The great expansion of the trade in petroleum and petroleum oils in the five or six years that followed, and the constant complaint of large loss by leakage from the casks, led to the invention of a cask which, having the staves as well as the joints saturated with a peculiar cement, made a vessel practically air-tight and oil-tight, and at a low price. The further extension of this process to wooden tubes of any required length, has led to the development of the plan for pneumatic tubes for railways and sphero-locomotion, which seems destined to revolutionize our modes of transportation and possibly of travel. The $11,000,000 of cooperage goods in 1860 have grown to a production of $20,000,000 in 1869, and with the impulse they are likely to receive from this new mode of transportation in the not distant future, will certainly attain to $350,- 000,000 in 1970. The subject of manufactures is a bound- less one, and we might easily fill many pages more with the prospects of manufactures now of minor importance, but destined perhaps to a grand development in the not distant fu- ture. We prefer, however, to close the pres- ent chapter with a few words in regard to cooperative manufacturing. The cooperative principle will find its larg- est and best development in manufacturing. In commerce, in agriculture, and in mining, it will be successful only in exceptional cases. The views, aims and capacities of the indi- viduals composing a cooperative association will be so diverse that it will hardly be pos- sible for them to carry on business peace- fully and successfully together where there is not and in the nature of the case can not be a place which each man can fill as well or better than any other. In almost every branch of manufactures it is possible to or- ganize a body of workingmen (not too large) where each will have his duties for which he is specially fitted, and in which he will not come in collision with any one else. Then, as it will be for his interest that his work shall be done in the best possible manner and as promptly as possible, he will do more and better work than he would have done if employed on wages by another. The tide is setting strongly toward cooperation now, and many will go into it in some form who would do much better to stay out. As a rule, cooperative associations are too large ; only the best workmen, temperate, prudent men of sound judgment, clear head and good temper, will succeed well in it ; and in man- ufacturing, which furnishes the best field for it, the cooperative association should employ a considerable number of persons who are not members, hiring them in the ordinary way, but giving them, after a period of pro- bation, the opportunity, if they are qualified, APPENDIX. 497 to become members, but still hiring con- stantly non-members. All the most success- ful cooperative manufacturing associations, both in this country and Europe, have adopt- ed this plan, and it has its advantages. The persons so hired do not receive, taking every thing into account, so large a compensation as the members ; while they are stimulated by the example of those around them and the hope of eventually becoming members, to do as much work and do it as well ; and thus their labor in turn acts as a stimulant to the members. Much, too, will depend upon the skill and business ability of the foreman or superintendent of the manufactory. A wise selection here, of a man with a capacity for leading and controlling men, with a thor- ough knowledge of his business, good finan- cial and executive talent, and a power of ready adaptation to any circumstances which may arise, will insure success, while the op- posite qualities will most certainly lead to failure. Cooperation will play a large part in the enterprises of our country in the next hundred years, but the great masses neither can nor will be brought to participate in it. CHAPTER yn. MINING IN THE FUTURE. No nation in the world, not even Russia, whose mineral treasures stretch across half of Europe and the whole breadth of Asia, pos- sesses one-half the mineral wealth which is deposited within the present territory of the United States. The great development of this wealth has been made within the past twenty -five years, and much of it within the past ten or fifteen ; and as yet we have hardly made a beginning in the work of bringing to light the hidden treasures of our mountains and valleys. Gold has been found in twenty- three of our thii-ty-eight States, with a fair prospect for it in at least three or four more, and in all the ten Territories. In thirteen of these States and all the Territories, the pro duction is known to be sufficient to admit of profitable mining. Silver, either in a nearly pure state or combined with gold, lead, or copper, is found in at least sixteen States and most of the Territories in profitable quan- tities. That the older gold mines and silver lodes have reached and passed their maxi- mum of production is undoubtedly true, but it is equally so that there are so many pla- cers, quartz leads, and silver deposits yet un- known and undeveloped, that for a hundred years to come not only will the present rate of production be maintained, but it will be greatly increased. The gold production of 1869 was, in round numbers, $63,000,- 000, and for the first time in the last eight or nine years there was an advance on the amount mined the previous year. With the completion of canals and other improve- ments, and the opening of new gold fields, this production is likely to increase steadily for some years to come. Silver mining has two special reasons for a large development in the near future ; the speedy completion of the Sutro tunnel, which, tapping the silver lodes in succession at their richest point, by level adits will drain them as well as make them readily accessible, and will lead to other similar enterprises ; and the development on a large scale, which can not be long delayed, of the rich silver mines of New Mexico and Arizona. Colorado has also large quantities of silver with its gold, and though its ores are somewhat refractory, they are very rich. The newly-discovered silver lodes at White Pine, Enterprise, and the Base Metal range, in Nevada, are also yielding large amounts. We are not sanguine of such a vast develop- ment of the gold and silver product of our country as of some of its other industries ; nor do we deem it desirable ; for if there should be a great annual addition to the amount of the precious metals, it would nec- essarily depreciate their purchasing power, and make a gold dollar the representative of but one-half, one-third, or one-fifth the quan- tity of food or staple muslins, cloths, or other articles of fixed value, that it now is. There is danger of this result even now, from the greatly increased production of these metals in all parts of the world. We believe, how- ever, that it is not impossible that the yield from all the mines in 19*70 may reach $100,- 000,000 or even $125,000,000. The present gold and silver product of the world, includ- ing, beside our own mines, those of Mexico, Central America, the South American States, Australia, Eastern and Southern Asia, the mines of Siberia and the Ural mountains, and the various rudely-worked mines and gold washings of Western and South-eastern Africa does not much exceed $200,000,000 per an- num. If it should rise to $300,000,000 per annum, a hundred years hence, its quantity would be so greatly increased (for it is to be 498 APPENDIX. remembered that but a small proportion of it is actually lost or used up) that its purchasing power would be greatly lessened. A bushel of wheat, the most accurate and unvarying perhaps of all our standards of value, which is now worth, say $1.40 in gold, would then not be purchaseable below |4 or $5 in gold ; and so with other articles ; not that the wheat was intrinsically worth any more, but that the gold would be worth less. At the present time we will say that the day's wages of an average journeyman mechanic are equivalent to two bushels of wheat. They would be worth the same a hundred years hence, but expressed in money value they would be $8 or $10 a day, instead of $2.80 as now, yet the $8 or $10 would purchase no more food, clothing, house-rent, or other things needful, than the $2.80 will now. A nation's highest mineral wealth does not con- sist, however, in the amount of gold and sil- ver beneath its soil. The iron and coal, the copper and tin of Great Britain, are worth more to her than gold or silver mines would be. Judged by this standard, we are rich in mineral wealth. Copper and lead abound at various points in our territory, as the readers of this work already know. The vast beds of copper ore in the upper Michigan penin- sula ; the extensive deposits of the same ma- terial in California ; the cupreous ores of Col- orado, New Mexico, and Arizona, where gold and silver are blended with the copper ; the copper deposits of the lower California penin- sula, and the smaller but rich deposits found at various points near the Atlantic coast, and the copper mines of East and Middle Ten- nessee, insure our supply of this important metal. Zinc, with which it is so often alloyed to make the important and useful compound, brass, is scarcely less abundant, and for the most part of excellent quality. Lead ores, and especially the galena, more or less argentif- erous, are found in immense quantities throughout the greater part of the Mississippi Valley, especially in Illinois, Iowa, Wiscon- sin, Missouri, Arkansas, and Tennessee, and in equal abundance all over the Southern and Central portions of the great plains, the Rocky Mountain plateau, and the valleys be- yond, even into California. Its deposits stretch northward also into Idaho and Mon- tana, Oregon, Washington, and British Co- lumbia. Tin, of which Great Britain and the East Indian Archipelago have been for ages the only considerable producers, undoubtedly exists both in Maine and in California, and has been mined to a small extent on the Pa^ cific coast. It is too soon yet to determine whether it can be made to supply any con- siderable portion of the national demand. Quicksilver, which is indispensable in gold mining as well as in many processes of the arts, is now produced in quantities nearly or quite suflBcient for the demand, in the New Almaden and New Idria mines of California, and the existence of large deposits of cin- nabar and perhaps other ores of it in New Mexico and Arizona is well known. It would be of no use for us to predict what quantities of these metals will be produced in 1970, for there are no means of knowing what the de- mand will be for them. Other metals, and particularly aluminium, which is now being produced cheaply and in large quantity, (and being the metalUc basis of our common clay, can always be procured,) may take the place of copper or zinc or possibly of lead in many of their applications to the arts and mechanism ; this much, however, we may regard as cer- tain, that with the possible exception of tin, we shall not in all probability have occasion to import any of them from other countries^ Of iron and steel we may speak more accu- rately and confidently. No State or Terri- tory of the Union is without its deposits of some of the ores of iron. These, as our readers already know from the earlier chap- ters of this work, are very numerous, and the very best of them for producing the best qualities of iron and steel are in close prox- imity to the best deposits of anthracite and bituminous coals of excellent quality for smelting them. The vast iron ore deposits of Pennsylvania, Ohio and Missouri, the rich ore-beds of the Lake Superior region, of New Jersey,. Connecticut, New York, Virginia, West Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and several of the newer Territories, supply all the needed varieties, and will enable us within a few years to become the greatest producers of iron and steel on the globe. The new processes for making steel and semi-steel direct from the ore will enable us to turn out during the present year, between one hun- dred and one hundred and fifty thousand tons, and by 1880, our annual production will reach four hundred thousand tons of steel. The production of pig iron in 1869, as we have stated elsewhere, was, in round numbers, one million, nine hundred and fifty thousand tons, an increase of eight hundred and forty -seven thousand tons on the pre- vious year. With our facilities for its manu- APPENDIX. 499 facture, and a tariff sufficiently high to pro- tect our manufacturers at the start from disastrous competition, there is no reason why we should not in 1970 produce over thirty million tons of iron and four million tons of steel per annum. The practical uses of these metals must, necessarily, increase with each year. We are only beginning to find out to what purposes both iron and steel can be applied. It is but about twenty years since iron was first used to any extent in this country for building houses and warehouses ; now, in our large cities, most of the ware- houses and a very considerable number of railroad stations, ferry-houses, churches, and even private dwellings, are constructed whol- ly or in part of it. It is hardly ten years since an iron ship was so great a rarity that it was worth going miles to see ; now the steamships, propellers, and many of the sail- ing vessels, are almost entirely of iron, and the vessels of war are almost wholly either of iron or iron-clad. It is hardly half a dozen years since we began to lay our first steel rails upon our railroads, and now we are using one hundred and fifty thousand tons a year, and very soon shall use five hundred thousand tons. So of other applications of these met- als. Books have been made with leaves of steel as thin as tissue paper, and beautifully flexible. Furniture of all kinds, toys, but- tons, jewelry, articles of dress, type, engrav- ing plates, glaziers' diamonds, cordage, tas- sels, inkstands, and wigs, are a few of the latest applications of this wonderful metal. We have already spoken of aluminium. When the processes for its reduction shall have been still further simplified and the price brought down to such a point that its universal use shall be possible, there can be no doubt that a metal so light and at the same time so ductile and malleable, nearly as white as silver and even less subject to oxi- dation, and which can be produced almost every where, will come to be of as general service as copper, lead, and zinc. The other rarer metals are some of them found in our country, and will undoubtedly most of them prove sufficiently abundant for the demand, which is not large for many of them. Potassium, sodium, iridium, rho- dium, caesium, zirconium, and one or two more, have some use in the arts, but the re- duction of the first two is rather a work of the laboratory than of the mining works, and the material from which they are to be redu- ced is always at hand. Iridium and rhodium 30 are found nearly pure on the Pacific coast, and also at one or two localities east. Cae- sium, zirconium, rubidium, and several other of these rare metals, are found in localities in New York and some of the New England States. The elementary bodies, chlorine, iodine, bromine, &c., are not strictly minerals, but are usually procured by the distillation of sea- water or from the kelp or ashes of sea plants, and the livers of some fish. Some mineral springs and two or three land plants also con- tain a small percentage of them. The most abundant and valuable of our minerals, after the metals, and perhaps even including them, is coal. The area of the known and worked coal-fields of Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia, does not exceed twenty thousand square miles. The two great coal-fields of North America, the Ap- palachian and the Rocky Mountain, contain coal deposits of one million, three hundred and seventy-six thousand square miles. Of this vast area, six hundred and thirty-nine thousand, two hundred and sixty-six square miles, viz., one hundred and twenty-six thou- sand, two hundred and sixty-six in the East- ern or Appalachian coal-field, and five hun- dred and thirteen thousand square miles in the Rocky Mountain coal-field, are within the present limits of the United States, without counting the very extensive deposits known to exist in Alaska, or those of California, or the Lower peninsula and its vicinity. The great bulk of these deposits are of bituminous or semi-bituminous coal, varying in quality,, but much of it very pure and rich in carbon and hydrogen. The Eastern anthracite coal- field is small in extent, not exceeding five hundred square miles, though some of its veins are very thick. The coal mined and consumed from this field in 1869 was fifteen^ million, seven hundred and twenty-one thou- sand, three hundred and eighty-six tons. There are some other small anthracite coal- fields in Rhode Island and Massachusetts (of inferior quality,) a small one, we believe, in Iowa, a considerable anthracite bed in the Queen Charlotte islands, off the coast of British Columbia, and in Lower California. The recently-discovered coal in the vicinity of Carbon Station, Wyoming Territory, on. the Union Pacific Railroad, is said to be a semi-anthracite. The production of anthrac- ite coal, a hundred years hence, unless new anthracite coal-fields are discovered, can not much exceed twenty-five or thirty million 500 APPENDIX. tons per annum, since these fields will be so nearly exhausted, and the price will be so hia^h as to limit the consumption. The production and consumption of bitu- minous and semi-bituminous coals, on the other hand, is in its infancy. The production of 1869 was estimated at fifteen million, eighty-six thousand, nine hundred and thirty tons, including four hundred and twenty- three thousand, eight hundred and ten tons imported, and largely used for the manufac- ture of illuminating gas. The recent discov- ery of extensive beds of coal in Illinois, In- diana, and Kentucky, and the opening of the great deposit of coal along the line of the eastward base of the Rocky Mountains, will stimulate its use in all sections, and ere long all our locomotives, steamships, and steam- boats, and all our stationary engines, will use bituminous coal only. Some descriptions of this coal are well adapted to the smelting of iron, and the reduction of lead and copper ; others are capable of furnishing the best of illuminating gas and the most admirable of lubricating oils. Great Britain produced, in 1869, one hundred and three million tons, all bituminous coal, an increase of thirty-one million tons in ten years. Before 1880 it is probable that our consumption will rival hers, and that it will reach five hundred mill- ion tons by 1970. Of the other mineral products, the most important is petroleum, of which we have spoken somewhat at length under the " man- ufactures of the future," most of the oil un- dergoing a refining process to fit it for mar- ket. The aggregate product of petroleum, crude and refined, the lubricating and illumi- nating oils, paraffin, &c., was about two hun- dred and fifty million gallons in 1869. When we consider the various uses to which it is likely to be put, the probability of its adapt- ation to the purposes of fuel for steamships, and the vast extent of the lands in which it is found, both in British America and the United States, we can hardly doubt that in 1970 its consumption will reach four thou- sand million gallons, or one hundred million casks. Lime abounds in almost every section of the country ; and the demand for it is gen- erally supplied without any very long trans- portation. The hmestones of the Mississippi Valley furnish both lime and a fine building- stone. Sulphate of lime (plaster of Paris) is found in several of the Atlantic States, in Jlowa, Nebraska, New Mexico, Arizona, Texas, and California. Salt, both in brine springs and in the form of solid rock salt, is found in New York, West Virginia, Ken- tucky, Ohio, Michigan, Iowa, Missouri, Ten- nessee, Arkansas, Texas, Arizona, New Mex- ico, Utah, Nevada, and California, and is also made from sea-water, both on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Its production and man- ufacture are capable of almost indefinite ex- tension, and there can be no doubt that long before 1970 we shall produce all the salt re- quired for our own consumption, which will not probably be less than two hundred and fifty million bushels. We have referred briefly to building- stone, and marble, granite, free-stone, slate, sienite, Scotch granite, &c., used for statuary, and monumental purposes. That we possess all these, of quality fully equal to the best that can be imported from Europe, does not admit of a doubt ; we are gradually import- ing the marble, sienite, Scotch granite and Caen stone in smaller quantities ; the other building and statuary stones are not now im- ported to any extent, and when the time comes that this department of national pro- duction shall receive the attention it deserves, we shall have no occasion for foreign mate- rial. In all departments of mining industry, there must in the nature of things be a stu- pendous development, and no small propor- tion of the wealth of the nation, a hundred years hence will be derived from its mineral products. CHAPTEK VIII. MACHINERY AND INVENTION IN THE FUTURE. The production of some classes of ma- chinery, such as locomotives, stationary en- gines, sewing-machines, agricultural machines and machinery for their manufacture, both in the present and future, have been consid- ered under the heads of Manufactures and Agriculture. There are other descriptions of machines, however, which deserve some notice. The invention of printing machines of all descriptions has taken a great advance within a few years past. From the huge ten- cylinder machines, which will tumble out their 30,000 newspapers of the largest size, printed on both sides, per hour, to the little flying imp that rattles off 5,000 to 10,000 handbills or cards per hour, and the slower, APPENDIX. 601 though still comparatively rapid book-print- ing machine, whose tireless fingers pick up and throw off their 2,000, 3,000 or 5,000 sheets per hour, all exquisitely printed — all of them are marvels of mechanical skill and of the adaptation of the principles of nat- ural philosophy to the arts. That these mechanisms will continue to be improved is a law of our nature and of our national genius, and when at no distant day a printing ma- chine shall be required which shall print 100,000 newspaper sheets per hour, it will be forthcoming, though it may require another St. John's Park to house it. But it is not alone in printing machines that the inventive genius of our people has displayed itself; the past decade has witnessed the comple- tion of a more perfect composing and dis- tributing machine than had before appeared, one which seems almost endowed with the capacity of thought. This has not yet at- tained to full perfection, but it will ere long be rendered capable, under the hands of a skillful operator, of doing the work of twenty, possibly of fifty rapid composers, in a given time, and doing it with an almost infallible accuracy. Of course such a machine is des- tined to be largely in demand in the future. Machines for adding, for making logarithmic tables, for a variety of mathematical calcula- tions, are also among the recent inventions of our time, and the plan of self-registration is applied to a great variety of machines and instruments of practical and scientific pur- pose. By this ingenious combination we can read the time of a clock 4,000 miles away, can have delineated for our inspection the rhythmical or unrhythmical pulsations of our hearts ; can ascertain what was the range of the thermometer and the barometer, the past night or the past month ; can tell how many miles a carriage has gone in its last trip, how many passengers have entered or left a railroad car ; whether a night watch- man has performed his whole duty in the order and at the times required of him ; what is the rate and course of travel of any partic- ular star in the heavens, and what was the exact duration of the last eclipse. Among the latest scientific inventions is a machine for recording sounds, as the photograph re- cords objects, taking advantage of the vibra- tion of the sound-waves in the atmosphere. By means of this "sonograph," as its in- ventor has named it, it is hoped to be able to record in characters readily legible by the initiated, a speech, however rapidly-deUvered it is uttered. New discoveries are constantly making, too, in the adaptation of the photo- graph, the telegraph, and the spectrum analysis, and by means of machines already invented or soon to be invented, we shall undoubtedly be able to learn more, daily, of the history of the earth and of its present and past inhabitants, and of the condition and habitability of the heavenly bodies, than ten or twenty years ago we could have ac- quired in a lifetime. In an age of such in- tense intellectual activity as that on which we are now entering, what to-day seems a miracle in invention or discovery, will to- morrow be regarded as an every-day occur- rence, and the mind will be constantly startled with new and unexpected developments and combinations, till we become as impassive and incapable of surprise as the Indian now is. No nation on the face of the globe ever possessed the inventive faculty in the same degree that it is manifested by our people, and though the admixture in the future of Mongol blood may deprive us of some of our originality in invention, the aptitude of that race at imitation and their patient faculty of automatic labor will, on the whole, increase still further our inventive powers. In 1869 there were, in round numbers, 18,000 patents, caveats, and renewals, issued from the Patent Ofl[ice. Of these, perhaps 12,000 were new . inventions, many of them, of course, worthless, but a few of decided value and importance. The gradually-increasing cost of procuring patents may restrict somewhat their issue, but the practical limit seems to be in the finding room for models, and skillful experts to make the examinations and report upon them. If it should be decided to dispense with the models and rely upon photographs and drawings of the inventions, the number of patents issued annually in 1970 may be 260,000 or more. In such an infinitude of possibilities in the way of invention and discovery, it is idle to attempt any definite prediction of what even the most remarkable may be. We may con- clude, however, with safety, that a new motive-power, or the application to practical motor purposes of some agency already known, will be one of the great discoveries of the coming age, and the thousands of ap- plications of it will form the subject of more than as many patents. For the rest, they will probably concern one or other of the following topics: Improvements in locomo- 602 APPENDIX. tion, transportation, and travel, including, possibly, some practical mode of sero-locomo- tion ; the introduction of new textile fibres, and new methods of preparing and manufac- turing them ; the invention or adaptation of new materials to take the place of wood, leather, stone, or some of the metals now in use ; the adoption of new materials for, and new combinations in, fictile wares, pottery, china, &c. ; new or greatly -improved ma- chines for agricultural purposes, and specially plows, cultivators, reapers, mowers, thresh- ers, hay-tedders, corn-gatherers, huskers and shellers, « Iron, imported, compared with that of Pennsylvania, lO^i Iron-clad war-steamers, 338, 532 INDEX Ironsides, the, 838. Isherwood, Chief Engineer, steam experiments of, 2T2. Italy, Importation of rags from, 292. "Jacketing," 269. Jackson, Patrick S., 281 ; Lowell originated by, 282. Jails, county, 438 ; defects of, 439. James, William T., 246. James I,. "Counterblast to Tobacco," 85. James River Cotton Mill, 284. James River and Kanawha Company, 190. James Steam Mills, engines used in, 253. Jay, treaty concluded by, 189. J. C. Cary, the, steam fire engine, 244. Jenks, ring spindle of, 286. Jenny, Devon cow, portrait of, 44. Jerome, Chauncy, manufactm-e of clocks by, 369. Jerome Manufacturing Company, 870. Jersey cows, value of, as milkers, 50 ; diffusion of, 50. J. G. Storm, the, steam fire engine, 244. Johnson and Morey, sewing machine of; 414. Jones, H. C, burglar-proof lock of, 897. "Journal of Prison Discipline," 440. Keel boats on the Ohio, 166, Kentucky, importation of short-horns Into, 47 ; their improve- ment there, 48 ; Herefords imported into, by Henry Clay, 48; thorough-bred horses in, 64; blue grass, 80. "Kettle-bottoms" (vessels), 163. Kip-skins, definition and sources of, 818. Knives, manufacture of, 340, 341. Knowles, John, first sewing machine invented by, 418. Labor, high wages of, 103; at the South, cheapness of, 119; comparison of free and slave, 120. Laclede, St Louis founded by, 343. Lake cities, 166. Lake region, area of the, 101 Lakes, the great, steamers and tonnage on, 166; ship-building on, 167 ; navigation of, 186; tonnage on, 187 ; first steam- boat on, 239 ; fisheries of, 385. Lamb-skins, uses of, 318; treatment of, 320. Lancaster gun, the, 334. Land, how cleared by the Indians, 21 ; exhaustive cropping of the, 22; effect of the cheapness of, upon wages ana interest, 103; speculation In, 147-8, 187; public sales and grants of, 157, 207. liand grants to railroads, 207. Lard, preparation and disposition o^ 66; exports of, to Great Britain, 1840-1858, 158. Lardner, remarks of, on England's self-superiority, 234 ; on the speed of locomotives, 249. Lard oil, manufacture and uses of, 67. Latta's steam car for cities, 251 ; steam flre engines, 259. Leather, 316; tables of manufactures of, 816, 326; kinds of, 818; treatment of, after tanning, 819. Leather-splitting machines, 828. Lee & Larned's steam fire engines, 244, 259. Leeghwater engine compared with that of Brooklyn "Water Works, 258. Lenses, manufacture of, 406. Leopold and Trevithick, inventors of the high-pressure en- gine, 229, Libraries, township and district, 99. Liebig on manuring, 100. Lillie's safes, 397. Lime, building, qualities and sources o^ 858. Liverpool and Manchester railway, 192. Live stock, number and value of; in 1860, 1860, and 1866, 102. (See Cattle Stock.) Livingston, Chancellor, Introducer of the grass-fed hog, 64 ; monopoly of the Lower Mississippi trade claimed by, 181 ; opposed railroads, 197; associated with Fulton, 239. Loaf sugar, how made, 392. Locks, burglar-proof, 397-8. Locks, canal, 185 ; inclined planes substituted for, 186. Locomotive, the first, picture of, 194 ; coal -burning, invention o^ 203; the first successful American, 205 ; premium for 246. Locomotive engines, principles of, 196; history of, 243; ex- periments with, 244 ; the first in the United States, 245 • manufactures and exportation of, 246 ; difference between English and American, 249; cost, proper construction, and speed of, 249 ; running expenses of, 250. Logging operations in Maine, 92-6 ; at Green Bay, 96. Long and Norris, locomotive builders, 246. Long Dock, the, at Jersey City, 202. Long shawls for men's use, 808. Looms, hand and power, picture of, 278. (See Power loom.) Loper propeller, the, 167. ILouiaiana, sugar cane cultiy^ted in, 127. Lowell, Mass., manufactories of, steam used in, 268 ; origin of, 282 ; factory system of; 285. Lowell and Jackson, power loom o^ 281 ! cotton mill estab* lished by, 282. Lowell locomotive shop, 246. Lumber, the trade in, 188 ; for building, sources and supply o^ 366, 857. Lumber business, the, 91; in Maine, 92; at Green Bay, 96; statistics of, 96. Lunatics. See Insane. Lynn, shoe manufacture of, 824. Macadam roads; 176. Machinery, benefits of, 269. Machines, exportation of, prohibited by England, 281, Mackerel fishery, the, mode of conducting, 883- McLean Asylum, the, 441, 449. Magic lock, the, 898. Mail service of the United States, 174; contracts, 177. Maine, account of lumbering in, 92-6; prison system of, 486, Malthus, theory of, disproved, 36. Manchester Company, the, cotton fabrics made bv, 284. Manning, William, patentee of the first successful mowing- machine, 135. Mansfield, Conn., silk culture in, 393. Manufactures, comparatively small exports of, 107; Northern, at the South, 122-3; colonial, home restriction of, 183; rise of, 144 ; in New England, 146 ; progress of, 1820-1880, 147 ; competition of home and foreign, 154 ; annual value of, 157 ; exports of, 1807-1859, 158 ; increase of, 159 ; use of steam in, 268; systematizing of, 361. Manure, early neglect of, 23; artificial, 100; the taking of bony fish for, 385. Maple sugar and molasses, production of, 180. Marble for building, 859. Marietta, Ohio, brig built at, 165. Marten, stone, fur of the, 847. Maryland, cotton mills in, 285. Mason, Captain John, Danish cattle imported by, 87. Mason, William, locomotive builder, 246. Mason & Hamlin's organ harmonium, &c., 434. Massachusetts, Agricultural Society of, 1792, 25; Introduction of cattle Into, 37; introduction of horses into, 5S; of sheep, 69 ; wool-growing unprofitable in, 60 ; production of fruit in, 82; law for the inspection of hops in, 89; rail- road system of, 196; cotton manufacture in, 284; table of woollen manufactures of, 812; boot and shoe manxifhc- ture of, 324 ; mackerel fishery of, 383 ; the ice business o^ 887; silk bounty of; 394; prison system of, 438; Gen- eral Hospital of, 449. Matanzas, the, propeller, 240. Mauch Chunk railroad, 192. Maumee river, fisheries of the, 883t Maysville road veto, 177. McCormick's reapers, 85, 36. Melodeon, the, 433. Memphis and Charleston railroad, 208. Mercantile agency, statistics of the, 159. Merino sheep, first exhibition of, 25; importations and In- crease of, 59. Merrimac and Monitor, encounter of the, 838. Merryman, John, of Baltimore, his herd of Herefords, 49. Mexican war, the, 164. Mexico, ancient use of cotton in, 274. Miami canal, 188. Michigan, railroads of, 208. Michigan, lake, first steamer on, 166. Michigan, U. S. steamer, experiments upon, 272. Middlesex canal, 173. Milk, yield o^ by an Ayrshire cow, 50; value of Jerseys for, 50. Miller, E. L., builder of the first successful American locomo- tive, 205. Mills, flour and grist, 431 ; statistics and operation of; 431-2. Mini6 rifle, the, 828. Mink fur, 847. Minnesota, railroad system of, 207. Mississippi, the, flat boats and steamers on, 181-8 ; n»vigaftio» of, 234. Mississippi railroad, the, 208. Mississippi valley, &c., area of, 102. Missouri, railroads of, 209. Mobile, hospitals of, 452. Mobile and Ohio railroad, 207. Mohawk and Hudson railroad, 197, 245. Mohawk Valley railroad, picture of the first locomotive on, 194. Molasses, how drained from sugar, 128; maple, 180; U6b of, 891. Monitors, the, 838. Moody, Paul, 282 ; inventions of; 286L INDEX 533 Mordecai, Major, experiments of, on velocity of shot, 887. Morgan horses, origin and character of, 54. Morocco leather, 318 ; tanning of, 820. Morris and Essex canal, 190. Morris, Gouverneur, the Erie canal projected by, 178 ; report of, upon connecting the lakes and the Hudson, 184. Morrison's steam crane, 265. Moms multicaulis speculation, the, 90, 394. Mould-board, the, improvements in, 80, 81 ; Jefferson's treatise on, 31. Mo watt, John E., towboat business established by, 241, 243. Mower, Excelsior, picture of, 83. Mowing machines, 35; utility and economy of, 36. Mulberry, culture of and speculation in the, 893-4. Mule spinner, the, 275; picture of, 279. Mummy cloths, material of, 275 ; used to make paper, 298. Mungo, manufacture and uses of, 815. Muscovado sugar, 128. Musical instruments, manufacture o^ 433. Mutton raising profitable at the East, 60. Nap, the, of cloth, how formed. 803. Narcotics, kinds used in ditferent countries, 86. Nasmyth, J., on Colt's revolver factory, 831. Native cattle, not a race or breed, 41 ; improvement of, 42 : at the West, 47. Naval gunnery, changes in, 337, 388. Naval power of the United States, 143. Navigation, equality in, obtained by the United States, 171-2; Internal, in early times, 178. Navigation act, the, 145. Negroes, lucrative employments of 115 ; condition of at the South, 119-21. Nelson, short-horn bull, 48. Newark, carriage-making at, 862. Newbold, Charles, first patentee of a cast-Iron plough, 81. Newell's burglar-proof locks, 397. New England, early farming in, 19 ; by the Indians, 21 ; the cattle in, 19, 20 ; introduction of cattle into, 37 ; decline of sheep-raising in, 59, 60; why wheat is not a prominent crop in, 73 ; rye profitable in, 78; fisheries and colonial trade of, 135 ; emigration from, to the West, 188 ; railroads In, 196-7; locomotive shops in, 246; cotton manufactures In, 281 ; factory operatives in, 282 ; fisheries o^ 878. " New England Farmer," 98. New Hampshire, Importations of Danish cattle Into, 37, 38. New Haven, the oyster business of, 385. New Haven Clock Company, 370. New Jersey once preeminent in wheat raising, 73; prison system of, 436. New Jersey Central railroad, 202. New Orleans, hospitals of, 452. New Orleans, Jackson and Great Northern railroad, 208. Newspapers, quantity of paper required for. 298. Neir York, Agricultural Society of, 1791, 25 ; Introduction of cattle into, 37; of horses, 63; of sheep, 59; four-fifths of the taxes of. paid by agriculture, 77 ; road system of, 175; canals of, 184; railroads of, 197; table of woollen manu- factures o^ 812 ; tanneries in, 817 ; leather manufactures of, 826 ; number and value of dwellings in, 854 ; amount of building materials used in, 360; carriage-making in, 862 ; prison system of, 436. New York city, great fire of 1836 In, 148; shipping at, 1850- 1865, 168; omnibuses and horse railroads in, 223; cloth- ing trade of, 309 ; leather trade of, 317 ; fur trade of, 346 ; the hat business In, 349 ; Prison Association of, 489^0 ; relief of the poor in, 448 ; hospitals of, 449, 450 (table) ; pauperism in, 451 (table) ; dispensaries o^ 452, 453 (table) ; other institutions of, 454-5. New York Central railroad, 200. " New York Farmer," 98. " New York Herald," engines used by, 269. Norris locomotive engine works, 246. Norris, Lee, India-rubber invention of, 409. North and South, no competition between, 121. North Carolina, colonial exports of, 136. North River boats, 180. North River of Clermont (steamboat), picture of the, 286. Northwest Fur Company, 843. Nurseries and foundling hospitals, 454. Nurseries, fruit, In the United States, 82. Oats, production and geographical distribution of, 78. Ogeechee canal, 190. Ohio, increase In the value of stock in, 50 ; canal system of, 188. Ohio Company for Importing English Cattle, 48. Ohio river, navigation of, 165; drainage of, 166; the first steamboat on, 239. Omnibuses in New York, 228: Introduction and increase of, 860. Oneida canal, 185. Opium war, the, in China, 163-4, Optical instruments, glass for, 404. Orange and Alexandria railroad, 204. Orchard grass, 80. Orchards, planting of^ 81. Orleans, the, first western steamboat, 239. Oscillating steam engines, 252. Orukter Amphibolos, the, picture of, 236 ; account of, 248. Oswego canal, 184. Otter, sea, the fur of the, 346. Oxen, New England working, superiority of, 42. Oyster trade, the, 884. Oysters, planting and breeding of, 884. Pacific Fur Company, 844. Pacific railroad, demand for the, 224; acts for and proerees of the, 225 ;. of Missouri, 209. Pacific slope, area of the, 101 ; agricultural production of the, 102. Paddle wheel, the, 240. Panama railroad, 224. Panic, the, of 1837, 151. Paper, importance and first manufacture of, 291 ; materials for, 292-3; machinery for, 295; sizes of, 296; process of making, 296 ; hand-made, 297 ; census statistics of, 298. Paper-hangings, manufacture of, 298. Paper-soled shoes, 826. Papin, Denis, his account of cooking by steam, 266-7 ; of the safety-valve, 267. Parkersburg branch railroad, 204. Paterson, locomotive works of, 246. Patersons, the, of Baltimore, 189, 140. Patterson, Mr., of Baltimore, breeder of Devons, 49. Patton stock of cattle, 47. Paul's patent for carding cotton, 108. Pauperism, treatment of, 445 ; increase of, from immigration, 446 ; In New York, table of, 451. Peach trees in California, 8S. Peaches, perfection of, at the South, 82. Pear orchards in Mississippi and Georgia, 82 ; in MassachU' setts, 83. Pear trees, profit of, 83 ; in California, 83. Pease and beans, production and exports of, 79. Peel, Robert, calico printing by, 276. Peltry, 347. (See Furs.) Penitentiaries, city, 489. Penknives, blades of, 840. Penn Cotton Mill, Pittsburg, 284. Pennsylvania, railroads and canals of, 188-9; line of Improve- ments of, 202 ; coal transportation of, 219-20 ; cotton mills In, 284; silk production of, 393; glass manufacture of, 400; prison system of, 435 ; insane hospitals of, 441, 442 (note). Pennsylvania railroad, 203 ; curves and high grade of, 280. Penobscot, logging boom on the, 94. Perkins, Jacob, 277, 801. Permutation locks, 397. Perry, the fleet of, 166. Petersham cloths, 306. Petersham Morgan, horse, portrait of, 56. Philadelphia, locomotive works of, 246 ; benefit of the sta- tionary engine to, 271; boot and shoe manufacture o^ 824; dwellings in, 365; carriage-making in, 362; silk manufacture in, 895 ; Prison Society of, 439-40 ; hospitals of, 441, 449 ; dispensaries o^ 452. Piano, the, American manufactures of and improvements in» 433. Pickering, Col. Timothy, breeder of the Woburn hog, (54. Pierce, of Troy, air-tube patent of, 256. Pinel, Philip, reform of the treatment of limatics by, 441. Pine lumber, classification of, 94. Pine woods hog, picture of, 61. Pins, manufacture of. 389 ; American improvements In, S90» Pistols, revolving, 331 ; breech-loading, 333. Pittsburg, glass manufacture of, 399. Pittsburg, Fort Wavne, and Chicago railroad, 208. Plank roads, 176. ' Plaster of Paris, use of, for safes, 896. Plating, processes of, 372. Plough, astonishment of the Indians at first sight of a, 22. " Plough, Loom, and Anvil," 98. Ploughs, early scarcity and inefliciency of, 27; description of various kinds, 27-30; immense saving from the improve- ment of, 80 ; cast-iron, invention and manufacture ot; 31 ; patents for, 31 ; steam. 263-4 Plum trees in California, 83. Plush, silk, for hats, 350. Pomologlcal Society, Amerfcan, 82. Poor, relief of the, systems of, 445 ; comparative statistics of 447 (table) ; associations for, 446, 448. . 534 INDEX Population, excess of, in Europe, over production, 71; pro- gress of, in the United States, 132, 144. Porl^ packing of, 66; classification and disposition of, 66; ex- ports of, to Great Britain, 1840-1858, 158. Portable steam engines, 255 ; for farmers, 263, 264. Postage, reduction of, 179. Post-office Department, early operations of the, 174. Potato crops in Great Britain, failure of, 153. Potatoes, production and exports of, 79. Poughkeepsie, pin manufactory at, 390. Poultry and eggs, 90. Poussin, Capt, 177. Powell, of Philadelphia, importer of short-horns, 48. Power loom, invention of the, 276; picture of, 278; Lowell's, 281 ; for woollens, 302 ; for carpets, 806. « Prairie whales," 163. Preble, Commodore, 165. Preserves, preparation of, 892. Prince «fe Co.'s melodeons, 434 Prince Euperfs drops, 4i.2. Printing of calico, 276; of cloth, 304; of carpets, 807, 808. Print works, cotton, 288 ; statistics of, 290. Prison discipline. See Prisons. " Prisoner's Friend," the, 440. ttisons. State, solitary plan of, 485; silent, 486; comparison of the two, 437 ; intermediate, 438 ; county, 438 ; city, 439 ; societies for the improvement of, 439-40. Products of the soil, 68. Propeller, the first ever built, picture of, 235. Propellers, lake, character of, 187 ; packet, between Philadel- phia and New York, 190 ; origin of, 240 ; advantages and disadvantages of, 241. (See Screw propellers.) Protective policy, the, 144, 152. Providence, cotton mill at, 280. Provisions and flour, exports of, 1790-1859, 158. Prussian blue, how made, 67. Public improvements, early, 173. (See Canals, Railroads, Ac.) Pump, force, for steam engines, 255. Pumping engine of the Brooklyn Water "Works, 268. Pumps, steam, 258 ; importance of, 260. Pyes' burglar-proof lock, 897. Quincy granite, 359. Quincy railroad, 192. Babbits' fur, 845. Kace, definition of, 41. Eafting in Maine, 94. Rag-pickers, 292. Rags, table of imports of, 292; consumption of, 293; substi- tutes for, 293: grades of, 298-4; woollen, for shoddy, 818-14. Rake, hand and horse, 86. Railroad cars, manufacture of, 367. Railroad companies, object of, 193. Railroad iron, importation of, 156 ; quantity used, Ac, 219. Raih-oads, 191 ; the earliest, 192 ; benefits of, 198 ; principles of construction of, 193 ; power on, 196 ; continuous line of, from Bangor to New Orleans, 204, 208 (table); land grants to, 207 ; table of, in the United States, 209-219 ; financial results of, 219 ; travel on, 221 ; horse, in cities, 223 ; in the world, table of, 224 ; comparative cost of, 224 ; early origin of, 244-5 ; speed on, 249 ; aggregate saving of time by travel on, 250. Rails, iron, 195; improvements in, 245. Rat skins for gloves, 326. Reaney & Neafy's steam fire engine, 259. Reaper, Wheeler's, picture of, 34 Reaping machines, great value of, 82; kind used by the Gauls, 82 ; triumph of American, at Paris, 85. Reed instruments, musical, 438. Reed's oscillator, 255. Revolution, effect of the, upon commerce, 187. Revolver, Colt's, invention and manufacture of, 881 ; other patents for, 832. Ribbons, manufactories of, 395. Rice, production of, 114-15. Richelieu, policy of, in regard to tobacco, 85. Ridgeley, Gen., breeder of the Woburn hog, 63. Rifle, improvements in the, 828 ; Sharp's, 832 ; Whitney's. 88a Ring spindle, the, 286. i- » / » Roads, state of, half a century ago, 62 ; origin and progress of, 172; different kinds and systems o^l74; proper con- struction of, 175; national, 176-7; of Connecticut, sati- rized, 192. Roberts & Rich, safe manufacturers, 897. Rodman, Lieut, improvement of, in gun-casting, 886. Roger & Co., carriage factory of, 862. Rogers, Smith & Co., plated goods of, illustrated, 878-6; manufactory of, 877. Rogers Locomotive Works, 246. Rotary steam engines, 252. E. E. Cuyler, the, propeller, 240. Eussia, few roads in, 172. Eum exported from the colonies. 185. Eye, diminished cultivation of, 77; total product of, 77; profitable in New England, 78. Sable, Russian and Hudson's Bay, 846. Safes, fire-proof, history of, 895-7 ; burglar-proof, 397. Safety valve, use of ihe, 229 ; account of the, 233; Papin's ac- count of the, 267. Sailors' Snug Harbor, the, 455. St. Anthony, Minn., lumber business at, 257. Salmon fishery, the, 382. Sanders, Col., of Kentucky, importation of cattle by, 47. San tee canal, 173. Savannah, railroad from, 205. Savannah, the, first ocean steamer, 180. Schaffer, materials for paper used by, 293. Schnebley's patent for reaping machine, 35. Schuylkill and Susquehanna Company, 173. Scissors, manufacture of, 340. Scott, John, asbestos safe of, 397. Screw propeller used by John Fitch, 229. Screw propellers, on the lakes, losses of, 166; Introduction o^ ISO. (See Propellers.) Scythes, the manufacture of, 842. Sea island cotton. 111 ; its production stationary, 117. Seamen, American, impressed by England, 139. Sewing machines, history of, 413 ; patents for, 414 ; illustra- tions of, 415-18, 421-2; growth of the manufacture o^ 419; combination of patentees of, 420, 421 ; classes, ope- ration, and description of, 421-7; applications of, 428; sales and manufactories of, 429 ; process of manufactu- ring, 429. Sewing silk, American, 895. Sharp's rifle, 832 ; manufactory for, 883. Sheep, first exhibition of merino, 25; importations of, 59; statistics of, 59, 60, 68; decrease of, in New England, 59; Increase of, in the South and West, 60; protection o^ from dogs, 60; most valuable of domestic animals, 60. Sherwood, Benjamin, revolving safe of, 397. Bhlp-building, in the colonies, 135; table of, in 1771,162; dif- ferent styles 0^162; increase of, 163 ; on the lafees,167; at the West and East compared, 859 ; table of, 860. Shipping, American and foreign at New York, 1850-1865, 168. Ship Timber Bending Company, 267. Shoddy, 313; manufacture of, 814; uses of, 315. Shoes. See Boots and shoes. Short-horns, great sales of, in England, 40; importations olj 47; not suited to New England, 48; improvement ot; in Kentucky, 48. Sickle, use of the, 82. Side wheel, the, 240. Silk, culture of, 90 ; tricolor, from Lyons, 154 ; efforts to pro- mote the production of, 398-4 ; raw, table of imports of; 395. Silk hats, process of making, 850. Silks, imports of, 1881-1840, 148 ; Increased importation of, 156. Silk-worms, management of, 898-4. Silsby and Mynderse steam fire engine, 260 ; picture of, 261. Sing Sing marble, 859. Singer's sewing machine, illustrations of, 417; introduction of, 419 ; description of the manufacture o^ 429. Skinner, J. S., agricultural editor, 98. Skins and furs used as currency, 75. Skins of animals for leather, 817-18. Skin-splitting machine, 820. Skunk, fur of the, 345. Slater, Samuel, cotton machinery introduced by, 280. Slatersville, cotton mill at, 280. Slave population in the United States, 172. Slaves, condition of, in the South, 119. Slave trade, in hibi tion of the, 141. Slide valve, the, 229. Sloops, travelling by, 178. Small, James, cast-iron mould- boards and ploughs made tty, 81. Smith, Adam, upon high wages and interest, 108; on leather, 827. Smith, J. B., paper of, on cotton, 118. Soil, products of the, 68 ; fertility of the, at the Weal, 74 ; Im- S3verishment of the, 87. „ um syrup and sugar, 180. South, the, no competition with the North, 121 ; Northern manufactures in, 122-8 ; results of the railroads of, 220 ; cotton manufactures at, 284; supply of lumber at, 857; silk culture in, 893. South America, cotton imported from, IIT. South American wool, 818. INDEX 535 South Carolina, Agricultural Society of, 1784, 25; colonial exports of, 137. South Carolina railroad, 192 ; account of, 204-5. South Downs, improved Kentucky, picture of, 58. Souther, John, locomotive works, 246. Southern staples, 158. Southern States, the, fruit in, 82 ; labor of, concentrated upon cotton, 110; cotton factories in, 115; character of the climate and labor of, 119. Spear, Mr., safe-filling discovered by, 897. Scecie, imports and exports of, 145, 147, 148, 153, 156 ; exports of, 1821-1859, 158. Specie circular, the, 151. Specie payments, suspension and resumption of, 151. Speculation, rise of, 147; results of, 151. Spindles in cotton mills, 286, 288. Spinning by hand, picture o^ 279. Spinning, cotton, 288. Spinning-ienny, invention of the, 108, 27Ci Spirits, imports of, 1881-1838, 148. Spreading machine, for cotton, 287. Springfield, manufacture of guns at, 834. Squirrel furs, 347. Staiford's breech-loading pistol, 838. Stages, system of, 174, 178. Stamp act, the, 137. Stationary engines, 252; improvements still needed in, 269; universal use of, 271. (See Steam engines.) Steam, progress of, on the Mississippi (table), 183 ; advantage of, for city travel, 250 ; laws of, 266-7 ; general results of the use of, 268 ; universal use of, 271 ; government ex- periments with, 272. Steam battery built by Fulton, 241 ; wagons, advantages of, 244; fire engines, 244; ploughs, 263; elevators. 264 ; ham- mers, 265; cranes, 265; heating, 265; boiling, drying, cooking, 266 ; timber-bending, 267 ; press, the, 269 ; pack- ing, vulcanized rubber for, 411. Steam engine, the, history of, 227 ; the first in America, 227: wonders of the, 230-31 ; patents issued on account of, 231 ; component parts of, 232 ; applications of, to naviga- tion, 240. Steam engines, manner of obtaining the horse-power of, 228; low and high pressure, 229 ; American improvements in, 230; stationary, diff'erent kinds of, 252; improvements in, 253, 269; bad management of, 254; portable, 255; hoisting, 256; portable, for farmers, 263; objections to, 269; stationary, 271; government experiments upon, 272. Stea» engineers, 254, 268, 270. Steam gauges, kinds of, 229 ; value of, 270. Steam tonnage, 164 ; ocean and inland, 165 ; table of increase of, at the West, 183. Steamboat, the first at the West, 165; racing, 183. Steamboats, introduction of, 179 ; speed of, 180 ; illustration and notice of Fitch's, 226, 229 ; Fulton's, 229 ; Stevens's, 230; superiority of American, 231; history of, 234; the first on the Hudson. 234 ; at the West, 289 ; on the lakes, 239 ; explosion of, 242 ; act for the inspection of, 242. Steamers, ocean, lines of, 164; losses of, 165; Western, de- scription of, 183 ; on the lakes, 187 ; side-wheel, 241 ; use of coal in, 241 ; iron-clad, 838. Stearine, uses of, 67. Stearns & Marvin, safe manufacturers, 897. Steel for cutlery, treatment of, 839-40 ; tempering of; 841. Steers, George, 241. Steinway «fe Sons' pianos, 483. Stephenson's locomotives, 245. Stern wheel, the, 240. Stern-wheel boats, 188. Stevens, Robert L., improvements in steamboats by, 230; blower introduced by, 241. Bt. Loais, the founding of, 843 ; the fur trade of, 344 ; hospi- tals of; 462. Stock, progress in the raising of, 37 ; products of, by States and sections, 51 ; in California, 68 ; total value o^ in the United States, 68; proportion of, to the hay crop, in dif- ferent States, 80. Stockton gun, the, 884 Stone, building, 859. St Paul, the fur trade of, 845. Strawberries, culture of, 82. Street railroads, advantages of steam on, 260; steam cars for, 251. Stuart's sugar refinery, 892. SuflFolk hog, improved, picture of, 61. Sugar the culture of, at the South, 115-16; boiling of, 127; yield, profit, production, and consumption of, 129 ; other than cane, 130; imports of, 1831-1840, 148; large impor- tation of, 156 ; failure of the Louisiana crop of, 156 ; com- parative consumption of, 391; refined, mode of making, 291-2 ; superiority of American, 892. Sugar cane, introduction of, 127 ; varieties of^ 127 ; mode of cultivating, 128; mills for, 12a Sun and planet motion, 280. Sunday school, the first in New England, 280. Super-heated steam, 256. Surat cotton, character and price of, 118, 119. Surgical instruments, manufacture of, 842. Swine, introduction and improvement o^ 68. (See Hogs.) Symington, William, 229. Table cutlery, manufacture of, 840. Tambouring machine, Bock's, 414. Tannin, quality and sources of, 319. Tanning, 316 ; materials for, 319 ; process of, 321 ; new pro- cess of, 328. Tariff, the, efi'ect of, 122 ; reduction of, 147 ; of 1842, 162 ; of 1816-1828, 144-5; table of imports and exports under, 145; on cotton and woollen goods, 283; on woollens, 312. Taunton Locomotive Company, 246. Tawing, the process of, 320. Tecumseh, Devon bull, portrait and history of, 46. Tennessee, premium fleece at the London World's Fair, raisea in, 60 ; railroads of, 209. Terry, Eli, first maker of wooden clocks, 368. Texas, grazing in, 102 ; sugar cane cultivated In, 127. Thimonier, crocheting machine of, 414. Thomas's " American Fruit Cultm-ist," 84. Thomaston lime, 358. Threshing machine, the, 86. Timber, varieties of, 94-5 ; for ship-building, 359 ; for car- riages, 862. Timber-bending by steam, 267, 359. Time, modes of measuring, 868. Timothy grass, discovery and propagation of, 80. Tires, American improvement in, 861. Tobacco, cultivation of, in Virginia, 72; impoverishment of the soil by, 80 ; use of, and opposition to, 86; production and exports of, 86 ; proper cultivation of, 86; geographical distribution of. 87; manufacture and consumption of, 87; and rice, exports of, 1790-1859, 158. Tomkins, breeder of Herefords, 40. Toucey, Hon. Isaac, 273. Tonnage, American, 140 et seq. ; entered and cleared in 1771, 162; comparative table of, 1789-1858, 163; of the interior, 168; steam, 164; on the lakes, 166 (table), 187; lessened by steam and railroads, 167; progress of, 1851-1858, 167; effect of the war upon, 168; steam, table o^ 243. Tooke's " History of Prices," 109. Trade, domestic, of the United States, 159. Traders, Indian, operations of, 187. Trades carried on in the colonies, 133-4. Trading voyage, course of a, 146. Transportation, means of, 172 ; reduction of the cost of, 184, 186, 191, 193. Travel, changes in, 181-3, 187, 221, 240; aggregate saving of time in, by railroads, 250 ; and transportation, improve- ments in, illustrated, 171. Trotting, popularity of, in the United States, 58. Tudor, Frederick, originator of the ice trade, 887. Tuke, William, improved treatment of lunatics by, 441. Tunnels in railroads, 195. Turnpike companies, 176; roads, 177. United States, the, area and present and prospective popula- tion of, 101 ; number of farms i. ad plantations in, 102 ; value of live stock and crops in, 102 ; high prices in, 103, et seq. ; progress in wealth and population of, 132, 144 ; condition of, after the revolution, 137; naval power of, 143 ; domestic trade of, 159 ; table of the growth of, 160 ; shipping of, 161 ; commercial prospects of, 168; table of railroads in the, 209-219 ; improvement of, through steam navigation, 234; freedom of industry in, 839 ; individual industries of, 353 ; dwellings in, 854. United States Bank, 143, 146, 151. Van Eensselaer, Stephen, 197. Velocity of shot, experiments upon, 887. Vera Cruz, expedition to, under Gen. Scott, 164. Vesuvius, the, third western steamboat, 289. Vine, culture of the, in California, 88. :, -, Virginia, introduction of cattle into, 87; early mode of keep- ing cattle in, 38 ; introduction of horses into, 53 ; neglect of wheat in, 72 ; cultivation of tobacco in, 86; exhaustion of the soil of, by constant cropping, 87 ; public improve- ments in, 190 ; the oyster trade of, 884. Virginia and Tennessee railroad, 204. Virginia Central railroad, 204. Walk-in-the-Water, first steamboat on Lake Erie, 289. Wabash and Erie canal, 189. 536 INDEX Wages, high rate of, from cheap lands, 103 ; affected by the European standard, 104; how maintained, 105 ; by the cot- ton production, 106 ; by California gold, 107. "Wares, internal production of, 159. Warehouse system, the English, 146. Wagon-making, 367. Watt, James, inscription on the monument of^ 227 ; Inventor of the low-pressure engine, 229. Waterbury, pin manufactory at, 890. Waltham, Mass., cotton mill at, 282 ; watch manufacture at, 871. War of 1812, 148. Washington, advocacy of agricultural societies by, 24 ; canal projected by, 71 ; interest of; in internal improvement, Washington, the steamboat, explosion of, 242. Washington Iron Works, portable engine manufactured at, 255. Washington, Pa., sewing silk made at, 893. Watches, American, distinctive character of; 370 ; process of manufacturing, 871. Watson, Elkanah, first exhibition of merino sheep by, 25. Wealth, progress of, in the United States, 132, 144 ; present and prospective, 168. Weaving, cotton, 288 ; woollen, 802 ; carpet, 806. West, the, agricultural development of, 74, 75 ; interior navi- gation of, 165 ; ship-building at, 859. West India colonies shut to American vessels, 163, West Indies, the, cotton imported from, 117; trade of the American colonies with, 134, 137 ; cotton first obtained from, 275. Western railroad of Massachusetts, 193 ; history and connec- tions of, 196. Whale, white, leather from the, 319. Whale fishery, the, rise of, 135 ; illustration of, 879 ; history of, 385-6; mode of conducting, 386; statistics of, 8S6. Wheat, early cultivation of, 72; subject to great casualties, 78; early exports o^ 73; at the West, 74; trade of Chi- cago in, 76 ; total production of, by sections, 77 ; total exports of, 77 ; in California, 77 ; exported from the South, 115 ; imported from Eussia, 148 ; value of the crop of 1850, 156; exports of, to Great Britain, 1840-1858, 158; received across the lakes (table), 187. Wheeler's patent reaper, picture of, 84. Wheeler & Wilson's sewing machine, illustrations of, 415-16; invention of, 419; description of, 422-3; manufactory of, 429. Wheeling, glass works at, 400. Wheels of steam vessels, 240 ; of carriages, 861 ; of railroad cars, 867. Whiskey, American, in demand in Europe, 155. White leather, how made, 320. White Elver canal, 189. White Water canal, 189. Whitehead, patent speeder perfected by, 284. Whittemore's machine for making cards, 301. Whitney's cotton gin, 111 ; effect of, upon commerce, 141. Whitney, Eli, rifle factory of, 338. Wilder, Enos and B. G., fire-proof safe of, 897. Willy, patent, for cotton, 287. Willcox, J. M., paper mill of, 291-2. Willcox & Gibbs's sewing machine, Invention of, 420 ; illus- trations of, opposite "420-21; description of, 425 (third class), Winans, Messrs., locomotive builders, 246. Wine, production and quality mt, in California, 83; censoft returns of, 84. Wines, imports of, 1831-1888, 148. Wilton carpet, 807. Wilson, Allen B. See Wheeler & Wilson. Woburn hog, the, 68. Wolston system, the, of steam ploughing, 264. Wood used in house-building, 91 ; for fuel, 97. Wood on Railroads, extract from, 198. Woodward's steam pump, 260, 263. Wool, exportation of, prohibited by England, 281 ; American manufacture of, 181 )-1850, 800 ; spinning of, 302 ; for car- pets, source and preparation of, 807 ; honie-grown, 312-13; South American, 813 ; inadequate supply of, 313. Wool and woollens, statistics of, 60, 68. Wool-growing in the United States, 59 ; most profitable at the South and West, 60 ; statistics of, 60. Woollen manufactures, development of, 300; processes erf", 301 ; various kinds of, 301-8; census statistics of, 311. Women's Prison Association of New York, 440. Worcester railroad, 196. Worsted, the manufacture of, 801; zephyr, 808. Worthinarton's steam pump, 260, 268. Wright, L. W., solid-head pin machine of, 890. Wyatt's patent for spinning cotton, 108. Tale, Linus, Sr. and Jr., burglar-proof locks of, 898. Yarn, cotton, prices o^ 110; grades of; 288; decline in cost o/, 290. Young, Arthur, labors of, 99. Young Denton, short-horn bull, 48. INDEX TO COMMENDATIONS. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. No. 6. No. 7. No. 8. No. 9. No. 10. No. 11. No. 12. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. 16. No. 17. No. 18. No. 19. No. 20. No. 21. No. 22. No. 23. No. 24. No. 25. No. 26. No. 27. No. 28. President Hobart College, Geneva. President Indiana State University. President J. Cummings, Wesleyan University. President Girard College. President Genesee College. President Cambridge University. President of Marietta College. President University of Rochester. President of Brown University. President University of Wisconsin. President Columbia College, New York. President of Tufts College. President of Dartmouth College. Chancellor Tappan, Michigan Unirersity. President Vermont University. President of Williams- College. President Trinity College. President Woolsey, Yale College. John McLean, Princeton College. Professor Johnson, Yale College. ^fessor H. Smith, Lane Theological Seminary. Professor W. C. Fowler, Amherst CoUeee Professor B. Silliman, Yale College. New York Times. New York Examiner. New York Observer. Hunt's Merchants' Magazine. Secretary Board of Trade, Philadelphia. No. 29. No. 30. No. 81. No. 32. No. 33. No. 34. No. 35. No. 36. No. 37. No. 38. No. 39. No. 40. No. 41. No. 42. No. 43. No. 44. No. 46. No. 46. No. 47. No. 48. No. 49. No. 50. No. 51. No. 52. No. 53. No. 54. No. 55. No, 56. Secretary Board of Trade, Boston. New Englander. Philadelphia Inquirer. Boston Transcript. New York Herald. Bostop Post. Principal American Asylum. John D. Philbrick, Sup't Massachusetts Schools. Boston Journal. Philadelphia Evening Journal. The Homestead. Philadelphia Daily Evening Bulletin. Secretary Board of Education, Boston, Mass. S. S. Randall, Superintendent New York. New England Farmer. Frank Leslie. R. G. Dana, Mercantile Agency, New York. Evening Post, New York. Benson J. Lossing. New York Journal of Commerce. W. H. Wells, Chicago. Harvey P. Peet, Superintendent, New York. Boston Cultivator. American .loumal of Science and Art. Springfield Republican. Isaac Ferris, Chancellor University New York. J. M. Matthews, Chancellor University, New York Professor E. W. Horsford, Cambridge University. EXTRACTS FROM COMMENDATIONS. The following Testimonials must convince the most sceptical person of the merits of this work. We do not remember of ever seeing a list of names attached to any pub- lication in this country whose opinions are entitled to more confidence. They were not given hastily, without examination, as it required about one year to obtain them. PUBLISHERS. No. 1. From A. Jackson, D. D,, President Hobart College, Geneva. I have examined, as far as time would allow, you!;' new work, entitled " 100 Years of Progress." I think it a very convenient book of reference, and a valuable addition to our statistical knowledge. 1 have already found it a very useful work to con- sult, and I gladly add it to our College Library, where it well deserves a place. No. 2. From C. Nutt, D. D., President of the Indiana State Uni- versity, Bloomington, Ind. I have examined your recently published work entitled " 100 Years' Progress;" and from the cxammation I have been able to give it, I believe that it merits riclily the highest commendation. The great variety and importance of the subjects, the feUcitous style in which they are clothed, and their numerous and beautiful illustrations, render this work peculiarly attractive. They embrace subjects of great and universal utility, and deeply interesting to all classes of community. Every profession and calling in life is here exhibited, with the latest improvements in every department of industry and art. The advancement made during eighty years, in the American republic, is unparal- leled in the history of the world; and will remain a proof to all coming generations, of the blessings of free institutions, and the capability of man, un- der a system of self-government, for an almost in- definite progress in civilization. This work should be in every library, pubhc and private, and in the hands of every citizen. No. 3. From the President of the Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn. I have examined, with much pleasure and profit, the work entitled " 100 Years' Progress." It contains a great amount and variety of information, printed in an attractive style, on subjects of the highest importance. It is eminently a practical work, and brings within the reach of all, stores of knowl- edge heretofore inaccessible to most readers. The novelty of the title, the great truths illustrated and established, give it increased attractiveness and usefulness. The patriot and the philanthropist will be encouraged by its perusal and stimulated to greater exertions to secure further progress in all good things in our country and throughout the world. The enterprising publisher has not spared expense in the manufacture of the work. The printing and the abundant illustrations are in the highest style of rt. One of the best illustrations of " Eighty Years' Progress," would be found in the comparison of the mechanical execution of this work with that of any work issued eighty years ago. Joseph Cummings, President of Wesleyan University. No. 4. From President of Girard College, Philadelphia, Pa. Dear Sir, —I have been interested and instructed by the perusal of your national work, entitled " 100 Years' Progress" for a copy of which I am indebted to your courtesy. An illustrated history of the various branches of industry and art in the United States, prepared with the ability and truthfulness which characterizes this work, will be highly acceptable to all classes of readers. In its artistic and mechanical execution, nothing has been left to be desired. I am not ac- quainted with any work in which so much reliable information on so great variety of subjects may be found in so small a compass. It is emphatically a book for the people. Yours respectfully, William H. Allen. No. 5. From the President of Q-enesee College. Lima, November 6, With as much care as my tune would allow, I have examined the work of Mr. Stebbins, entitled " 100 Years' Progress." It contains a large amount of valuable information, in just the form to be circulated widely among the people. It is in fact a brief and interesting history of our progress as a nation, in both science and the arts. I am willmg 538 COMMENDATIONS. that my name and influence should aid in its circulation. J. Morrison Reed. I fully concur in the above. James L. Alvison, Professor in Genesee College. No. 6. From the President of Cambridge University. Cambridge, Oct 31, Dear Sir, — I have examined the work called " 100 Fears' Progress,^ ^ with such attention as I could give it. I am not competent to verify the statements of many parts, but the names of the gentlemen who contributed some of the most im- portant portions seems to be a sufficient guaranty of their accuracy. I have no doubt the volumes contain much valuable information on the practical arts and mdustrial mteresta of the country. C. C. Felton. No. 7. From the President of Marietta College, Ohio, Bear Sir,— The work on the " 100 Tears' Pro- gress of the United States^' was received by mail a few days since. I have given what attention I could to it, and write you now, as I am expecting to be ab- sent from home for some days. The examination of this work has given me much pleasure. The idea of furnishing this most valuable knowledge in a comparatively small compass, was a most happy one. As a people we want informa- tion— reliable information. We need to know our own history, in art and science, as well as in govern- ment. The people of one section should know how those of others hve — ^the progress of one should be made known to all. The idea of the work you have undertaken seems to have been well carried out, as well as happily conceived. On a great variety of topics, in which aU the people are interested, you have furnished a large amount of valuable information. AU, except those of the lowest grade of intelligence, will avail themselves of the opportunity to secure this vol- ume, and, unlike many books, the more it is exam- med the more valuable will it seem. I anticipate for it a wide circulation. I feel great interest in the character of the books distributed through the country. We teach our young people, at great cost, to read. Many, having acquired the art, have no disposition to use it ; and others read nothing that has any value, G-ood books, books — not newspapers, they wiU take care of themselves — should be in every house. Hence, I favor school Ubraries, as an easy and cheap method of putting good books into the hands of the young. For a like reason I rejoice in the purchase, by fami- lies, of all good works. This work on the Progress of the United States, will serve a most excellent purpose in two ways. It may be taken up at any time to employ a few leisure moments, and it serves as an encyclopaedia for reference. Please accept my thanks for the volume, and my best wishes for its wide-spread distribution. Yours truly, J. W. Andeews. L. Stebbins, Ebq., Worcester, Mass. No. 8. From the President of the University of Eochester, N. T. I have looked over, somewhat hastily, the work entitled " 100 Years' Progress." The plan seems to me excehent, the idea of presenting in a short compilation the present state and rate of progress of the various industrial arts is one which can not fail to be thought worthy. In general, the work seems ^to be successfully and correctly done. Id such a work it is impossible to avoid errors, and the prejudices and interests of the different com- pilers may be occasionally seen. Notwithstanding this, the work seems to me well worthy the patron' age of the public. M. B. Anderson, Pres. University of Rochester. No. 9. From the President of Brown University, Providence, E. I. I have examined those parts of the '^ 1 00 Years' Progress of the United States" on which my studies and observation have enabled me to form an intelli- gent judgment, and find, compressed within a small compass, a vast amount of valuable information, well selected and weU arranged. It furnishes am- ple means of comparison on the subjects of which it treats, and will, I think, prove to be a valuable book of reference. Very respectfully, your ob't serv't, B. Seaes. No. 10. From President Eead, University of Wisconsin. I have examined, with a pleasure I can hardly express in too strong terms, your " 100 Years' Progress of the United States." During the few days the work has been on my table it has saved me, in the examination of facts, labor worth many times the cost of the volume. For the school library the business man, the scholar, or the intelligent family, it will be found -a cyclopaedia presenting, in a most interesting form, the progress of the various arts of civihzed life during the period of our nation- al existence. I most heartily recommend the work. Yery truly yours, Daniel Read. No. 11. From the President of Columbia College, N. Y. Sir, — I thank you for the copy of " 100 Years' Progress of the United States," published by you. COMMENDATIONS. 589 It seems to me of great value as containing in- formation of interest, more or less, to all, and not easily accessible, except to varied labor and re- search. The idea, too, of illustrating national progress, not by war, nor annexation, nor diplomatic legerde- main, but by the advance in the institutions of learning, in useful inventions, in the growth of manufactures, agriculture, and commerce, in all the arts of peace, in morals and civiUzation, in the inner life, so to speak, of the people themselves, seems to me both original and founded in the true notion of progress. I trust you will derive abimdant reward for your praiseworthy adventure. Your obedient servant, Ch. King, Pros, of Columbia College. Mr. Stebbins. No. 12. From the President of Tufta ColFege. January 27, Mr. Stebbins ; Dear Sir, — I was led to expect much from the title of your work, called " 100 Years' Progress," and resolved to give it a careful examination. I have been richly repaid for the time thus spent, in the great pleasure and profit I have derived from its perusal. Heartily thanking you for this generous contribution to generous knowledge, I trust you may reap a rich reward for your efforts. John P. Marshall. No. 13. From the President of Dartmouth College. January 20, L. SrEBBms, Esq. : Dear Sir, — I received some days ago your very handsome work, " 100 Years' Progress of the United States," but have found leisure only within a day or two to examine its contents. Those persons who have been long- est on the stage can best appreciate the amazing contrasts in the state of the country which you describe, but one who, like myself, can recognize the history of half the period, can testify to the faithfulness and fullness of your exhibition of the growth and power of this great country. Accept my sincere thanks for the work, and the opinion that on the subjects treated it will be found an invaluable authority by all who study its pages. I trust it may have an extensive distribu- tion. Very respectfully yours, 0. P. Hubbard. No. 14. From CSianoellor Tappan, State University of Michigan. January 25, Mr. Stebbins: Sir,— I have the honor to ac- toowledge the receipt of a copy of the work re- cently published by you, entitled " 100 Years* Progress;" for which please accept my hearty thanks. It was not to be expected that this work could be made to contain an adequate view of the progress of our country during eighty years. But you have presented the public with this large work, fiUed with interesting and valuable matter on this sub- ject, as much, perhaps, as could be compressed into it. I hope this work will fin(J a wide circulation, and thus become a public benefit in « literal sense. I am very respectfully yours, etc., Henry P. Tappan. No. 15. * From the President of the Vermont University, Burlington. I have only had time to dip into your " 100 Tears^ Progress*^ here and there. But I have been pleased and instructed, and am sure the book must be very valuable. My children are very much in- terested in it. Yours very truly, Calvin Pease. No. 16. From the President of Williams' College. Dear Sir, — I have no hesitation in saying that the work proposed to be done in the " 100 Years' Progress''' has been well done. For those who wish a book of the kind, yours cannot fail to be the book. Respectfully yours, Mark Hopkins. Mr. L. Stebbins. No. n. From President of Trinity College, Hartford, Conn. Dear Sir, — I have to thank you for a copy of your work on the Progress of the United States. It treats of some matters with which I am familiar, and of some with which I am not famihar ; but I think I can honestly say, with regard to both, that they are so presented as to be at once interesting and instruct- ive to the general reader. Your obedient servant, Samuel Eliot. HARTroRD, October 4^ No. 18. From Pres. Woolsey, Yale College, New Haven, Conn. Yale College, Nov. 15, Mr. L. Stebbins: Dear Sir,— Your book is a good and useful one, but it is not my practice to recommend books. Your obedient servant, T. D. WOOLSET. 540 COMMENDATIONS. No. 19. College of New Jersey, ) Peinceton, Jan. 28, J Dear Sir, — Your " 100 Years' Progress of the United States," I regard as a valuable publica- tion, richly meriting the attention of the general reader, as well as the more careful examination of the student interested in observing the advance- ment of our country in the useful arts and learning. Very respectfully yours, John McLean. L. Stebbins, Esq. No. 20. • From Prof. Johnson, Yale College, New Haven, Conn. L. Stebbins, Esq. : Bear Sir, — I have examined " 100 Years' Progress, " with interest, especially the excellent chapter on agriculture. In my opinion, the work is one of much value, and deserves a wide circulation. Yours, etc., S. "W. Johnson, Prof of Analytical and Agricultural Chemistry in the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale CoUege. No. 21. From Rev, Dr. Smfth, Lane Theological Seminary, Ohio. Mb. L. Stebbins : My Dear Sir, — I have run my eyes with great interest over your beautiful work, " 100 Years^ Progress,''^ It contains, in a condensed yet attractive form, a mass of information touching the progress and present condition of our country. It is, moreover, information of which every man, at some time, feels the need ; and it would be a grand contribution both to the intelligence and patriotism of our whole population, if you could succeed in placing a copy of it in every family of the land. I shall place your book on my table for constant reference. "Wishing you all success in your enterprise, I am very truly yours, Henry Smith, Prof. Ch., Hist, and Sac. Rhetoric. No. 22. From Professor Fowleb, of Amherst College, Editor of the University Edition of Webster's Dictionary, Series of Clas- sical Books, etc The work which you placed in my hands, entitled " 100 Years' Progress of the United States," I have taken time to examine, in order that I might learn its intrinsic value. I find that the subjects selected are such, and the manner of treatment such, as to supply a felt want in the public mind, which, in its own progress, was demanding higher and better help than it enjoyed before the publication of your work. This might be inferred from the bare mention of the subjects and the authors. These subjects are treated by these writers with that cor- rectness of the statement of the general principles, and with that fuUness of detail which make the work just what it ought to be as a guide to the people. Every young man who wishes to elevate his mind by self-culture, ought to read this work carefully. Yours respectfully, WiLLLAM C. Fowler. No. 23. From Prof. B. Silliman, Tale College, New Haven, Ct I have carefully looked through your rich and faithful work, observing the copious tables of con- tents, glancing at every page of the work, and at all the numerous illustrations, with occasional reading of paragraphs. A more thorough examination it has not been hitherto in my power to make ; but even this general survey has left on my mind the decided conviction that you have performed an im- portant service to your country in thus mapping out and condensing and explaining the wonderful progress mai^e in this country, during four-fifths of a century, in aU the most important arts of life. My own recollections — my years having been coeval with the entire period covered by your work — sus- tain your statements regarding the extreme simpli- city of our early domestic arts — cheap in mechanical aids but prodigal of time. Now productive industry, aided by successful inventions, fills all our regions where free labor has full scope for action, with in- numerable results which are fully equal to our wants, even in the present crisis, leaving also a large redun- dancy of articles for export, especially in the depart- ment of agriculture, and in not a few important me- chanical arts. Your work of closely printed pages of double col- umns, with a fair paper and a clear and distinct type, with its numerous engravings, defended also by a strong and neat binding, presents a valuable book of reference ; a manual to be consulted by the agri- culturist and artist, as well as by the man of science and the historian of progress. Wishing to yourself and your worthy coadjutors full success, I remain, dear sir, yours very respectfully B. SlLLDIAN. New Haven, October 8, No. 24. From the New York Times. " 100 , Years' Progress of the, United States.'"— If at all inclined to doubt that a great deal of useful in- formation may be bound up in a comparatively small compass by a judicious compiler, in the very hand- some work before us, we should find sufficient logic to make us devout believers. The writers have ranged through the wild fields of agriculture, com- merce, and trade ; very little that develops the ma- terial prosperity of a country, and marks its growth, has escaped their industrious research. Undoubt- edly, minute criticism might detect slight errors, but in a work of so comprehensive a character, strict accuracy would seem almost unattainable. The statistics given are full and clearly arranged ; the grouping of the subjects, and the evident method which the authors have observed in the accomplish^- COMMENDATIONS. 541 ment of their not inconsiderable task, are worthy of all praise. The work is one which we particu- larly need, as it is a lamentable fact that few people are so deficient in general knowledge of facts rela- tive to growth and development of their native country, as ours. The Englishman generally has an arsenal of statistics at his fingers' ends ; he can tell you when the first shaft was sunk in the first mine ; when the first loom was erected in Manches- ter. The panoply of facts in which he is arrayed makes him rather a ponderous and far from spright- ly companion, at times ; but then he always proves formidable as an adversary. Germans, too, have nearly every thing by rote that relates to their own country. Frenchmen are quick to learn, but they have not very retentive memories generally, and are very apt to forget all, and more, than they once knew. It may be urged in extenuation of our na- tional delinquency, as regards a knowledge of our own country, that our country grows too fast for our memories to keep pace with it, and that a Yan- kee can arrive by guessing at what others, less fa- vored in this respect, can only reach by delving in authorities ; but, on the whole, it is b^ter to trust to actual knowledge of facts, and under any circum- stances such books as these are good things to have in the Ubrary. No. 25. From the New York Examiner. " "100 Years^ Progress of the United States," by eminent literary men, who have made the subjects of which they have written their special study. The citizen who desires to comprehend fuUy how the country in which we live has, under the foster- ing influences of a good government, the enterprise of an energetic people, and above all, the blessing of God, grown from a handful of people to one of the leading powers in the world, should purchase and read, carefully this work. It is no catchpenny aSair. The men who have prepared the narratives of progress in the various departments of agricul- ture and horticulture, commerce, manufactures, banking, education, science, art, and the matters which go to make " home" so emphatically an American word, are not novices, penny-a-liners, who write on any or all subjects, with or without an un- derstanding of them, for the sake of their daily bread — ^but men of high reputation, who have made the subjects they discuss the topics of a life's study. Every subject which will admit of it is finely illus- trated, and tables of statistics, carefully prepared from the latest sources, show the present condition of each department, and demonstrate, as only figures can, how great the advance which has been made in each. As a work of reference, not less than as a deeply interesting book for family reading, it will be a treasure to any household that may obtain it. No. 26. From the New York Observer. " 100 Tears^ Progress of the United States." — ^the above rather formidable title-page is quite a full ex- position of the contents of this large work, which contain a vast amount of scientific, historical, and statistical matter, and which constitute a valuable encyclopaedia, as well as history of the progress of the coimtry, during the last eighty years. Many of the most extended articles are by eminent scien- tific and practical men, who have devoted themselves largely to the subjects on which they have written. The subjects are not treated briefly, but in detail, rendering the work valuable as a book of reference as well as for general reading. Such a review as we have in this work may well excito wonder, gratitude, and hope. The history of no other coun- try can furnish a parallel. No. 2*7. From Hunt's Merchants' Magazine, edited by I. SMrm Ho- MAN8, Secretary of the Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York. " 100 Years^ Progress of the United States." — The first eighty years of the national existence were Ulustrated by no brilliant military exploits, such as for the most part make up the history of most coun- tries of the Old World, but the American people did not the less on that account assume a marked character, and a first rank among the nations of the earth. Their success in ship-building and commerce at once placed them on a level with the greatest maritime nations. The inventive genius and untir- ing industry of the people soon revolutionized the manufacturing industry of the world, by the ready apphcatioft of new mechanical powers to industrial arts ; and if the extent and cheapness of land for a time supplied the scarcity of labor in agricultural departments, it did not prevent the multiplication of inventions, which have not only added immensely to home production, but have greatly aided that of European countries. The development of these in- dustries forms the true history of American great- ness, and the work of Mr. Stebbins has given a world of information upon each branch of the sub- ject, in a most authentic and attractive form. The chapters on ship-building, commerce, and internal transportation, present to the reader a mass of val- uable information as astonishing for the magnitude of the results produced as interesting in the narra- tive. "We know of no other work which, in the compass of two handsome volumes, contains such varied and comprehensive instruction of a perfectly reliable character. They form almost a complete library in themselves. No. 28. From the Secretary of Board of Trade, Philadelphia. L. Stebbins, Esq. : Dear Sir, — I examined with interest the volumes published by you, entitled " 100 Years^ Progress," and found them partic- ularly valuable. The design struck me very favor- ably, and the execution of the several parts could not have been intrusted to more competent hands. The last eighty years of the history of the United States has been one of unexampled progress, and it is now more than ever important to brmg in review before the people of every section the leading facts of this marvellous progress. Yery respectfully yours, ■"■"TttN Blodget. 542 COMMENDATIONS. No. 29. From the Secretary of the Board of Trade, Boston. My Dear Sir, — My many cares just now have prevented me from a comparison of the statistical matter contained in the " 100 Years' Progress,'' with official tables in my possession, as well as an examination of some other things, concerning which authorities differ, but I have found time to acquaint myself with the general topics and objects of the work, and do not hesitate to declare that I have not read more interesting pages for years. In- deed, the best informed among us, cannot, as it seems to me, fail to find much that is new, while to the young and to those who lack the means of re- search, so authentic and well-digested account of our countrj^'s " Progress," will be of immense ser- vice. We all boast of our wonderful march in com- merce, in manufactures, in mechanics, and in the arts ; and here we have it, step by step, in " facts and figures," and in brief and pithy narrative. With all my heart, I hope that the sale will be extensive, and that you may be well rewarded for your outlay of time and capital. Very truly, your friend, Lorenzo Sabine. L. Stebbins, Esq., Hartford, Conn. No. 30. From the New Englander, New Haven, Conn. " 100 Years' Progress of the United States.'^ — In this very large octavo work there is presented in a compact and easily accessible form an amount of valuable information with regard to the progress which the people of the United States have made in all the various channels of industry since the days when they were British colonists, which is not to be found in any other single work with which we are acquainted. Each one of these subjects is amply illustrated with engravings. The different chapters have been prepared by well-known liter- ary men who have each made the subjects about which they have written the study of years. We have examined the work repeatedly and with much care during the past three months, and each time have been impressed anew with its value. There is not an intelhgent family in the nation who would not be interested and instructed by it, and find it a most convenient book of reference with regard to every thing pertaining to the industrial interests of the country. No. 31. From the Philadelphia Inquirer. ** 100 Years^ Progress of the United States.''^ — ^To any one desiring at a glance a comprehensive view of the various channels of educational industry irr commerce, manufactures, agriculture, statistics, etc., they are invaluable. They are profusely illus- trated with elegant engravings in the highest style of artistic merit. The volumes redound with sta- tistical and miscellaneous information of a standard character and permanent value. The expense of publishing a work of this character must have been very large, but we feel confident that a discrimi nating public have not been overestimated. There are among the peculiar characteristics of our people, wide- spread opinions prevailing, that books sold by subscription are of a necessity more expensive than when purchased in a general way at the counter of a pubhshing house. This is evi- dently an error that could easily be subverted by a little demonstration, and the publishers' remarks in the preface are to the point, and effective. We know of hardly any book or books which are with- in the reach of every-day life, that we would sooner advise a friend to purchase. Its value will be un- impaired for a lifetime. No. 32. From the Boston Transcript " 100 Years' Progress of the United States:'— This work is the result of much careful research, exercised by many minds on a variety of important subjects. They show the industrial and educational steps by which the people of the United States have risen from their colonial condition to their present position among the nations of the world. They give, in a historical form, the progress of the country in agriculture, commerce, trade, bankisg, manufactures, machinery, modes of travel and trans- portation, and the work is intended to be sold by subscription, and will doubtless have a large circu- lation. It ought to be in every house in the land. It is more important than ordinary histories of the country, as it exhibits all the triumphs of the prac- tical mind and energy of the nation, in every de- partment of science, art, and benevolence. It is a storehouse of important and stimulating facts, and its interest can hardly be exliausted by the most persistent reader. No. 33. Prom the N. Y. Herald. " 100 Years' Progress of the United States" by eminent literary men. — The object of this work, as set forth in its preface, is to show the various channels of industry through which the people of the United States have arisen from a British colony to their present national importance. Tliis is done by treating separately the improvements effected in agriculture, commerce, trade, manufactures, ma- chinery, modes of travel, transportation, etc. The preparation of these different articles has been in- trusted to writers whose pursuits qualified them to handle them exhaustively, and the result is the assemblage of a vast amount of statistical and other information which is not to be found in the same collective and condensed form in any other work extant No. 34. Prom the Boston Post. " 100 Years' Progress of the United States, showing the various channels of industry through COMMENDATIONS. 543 which the people of the United States have arisen | from a British colony to their present National Importance," is the title of a new and exceedingly valuable work. The work gives in a historical form the vast improvements made in agriculture, com- merce, trade, manufacturing, etc., together with a large amount of statistical and other information. It is illustrated with numerous engravings, and al- together forms a most valuable and instructive com- panion to the writer, the business man, or the student No. 35. From Wm. W. Turner, Principal of the American Asylum for Deaf and Dumb, Hartford, Conn. I have examined your new national work entitled " 100 Years' Progress of the United States," and find that the information it contains on the wide range of subjects treated of must make it exceeding- ly valuable as a standard book of reference. The names of the writers of the different articles afford a sufficient guaranty that the facts and statements may be reUed on as correct. I consider the work a very important accession to this department of literature, and have no doubt that it will find its way into the library of every private gentleman and every public institution. Yery truly yours, Wm. W. Turner. No. 36. From John D. Philbrick, Superintendent Common Schools, Massachusetts. I have examined the " 100 Fears' Progress" with great satisfaction. I consider it a work of great value, and it is one which I should be very unwill- ing to spare from my hbrary. It is not only such a book as the literary or professional man would like to possess, but it is a book for every household, and for every school hbrary. ^Very truly yours, John D. Philbrick. No. 37. From the Boston Journal. " 100 Years^ Progress of the United States." — In this elaborate and valuable work the progress of the United States is illustrated by historical sketches of the rise and development of agriculture, commerce, tirade, manufactures, modes of travel and transporta- tion. The authors will be recognized as fully com- petent to treat upon the above subjects, and their sketches have great Interest and value, as well for the facts which they present, as in illustrating the rapid progress of the United States in all that conduces to material wealth and national prosperity. The work abounds in valuable statistical information, and is interesting for perusal, and useful for refer- No. 38. From the Philadelphia Evening Journal. " 100 Tears' Progress of the United States,''' by eminent Mterary men. — The work treats of the va- rious channels of industry through which the people of the United States have arisen from a British colony to their present national importance. It treats of the vast improvements made in agriculture, commerce, trade, manufacturing, machinery, modes of travel and transportation, etc., etc. No. 39. From the Homestead, Agricultural Journal, Hartford, Ct " 1 00 Years' Progress of the United States.'^ — The title conveys but a faint idea of the great amount of information contained in these volumes, and no cursory glance can more than convince the reader that they possess great value as an encyclopaedia of arts and progress in civilization. The names of the authors of the more important articles, sev- eral of whom are known to us personally and high- ly respected, are a guaranty that their work is well done, and statements reliable. Our limited space forbids an extended notice, but before noticing es- pecially the agricultural departments, we must add, that to every one who takes it up it is one of the most fascinating of books, a most remarkable qual- ity in a book so statistical in its character. The article of progress in Agriculture is by Chas. L. Flint, Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, and is a most able and interesting col- lection of facts in regard to the remarkable pro- gress of this country since the Revolution. No. 40. From the Philadelphia Daily Evening Bulletin. Mr. L. Stebbins, — After carefully examining your valuable publication, " 100 Years' Progress of the United States," and having on various occasions, in our professional business, tested its accuracy as a work of reference, we are able to bear testimony to its character. No work that we have ever seen gives such spirited, comprehensive, and correct views of the progress of our country in political strength, in commerce, agriculture, manufactures, and all branch- es of industry and art. The work has been pre- pared with extreme care ; the various subjects are treated with intelligence, and the style of composi- tion proves that the writers are men of education, who have thoroughly informed themselves on ths subjects they discuss. The illustrations and the typography add much to the attractions of a work that should be in the hands of aU who take an in- terest in the growth of our country, and feel a patriotic pride in its prosperity. We are very respectfully, your ob't serv'ts. Peacock, Chambers & Ga No. 41. From the Secretary of Board of Education. Boston, Mass., Sq)t. 6, Dear Sir, — I beg leave to thank you for your no- ble work entitled " 100 Years' Progress." 544 COMMENDATIONS. After such an examination as I have been able to give, I do not hesitate to pronounce it a work of unusual interest and value. As a depository of facts illustrative of the pro- gress of our coimtry in the departments of industry, it is invaluable. Its wide circulation, at this eventful period, can- not fail to arouse and deepen that patriotic love of our institutions which is the pressing demand of the hour. Respectfully yours, J. "White. L. Stebbins, Esq. No. 42. From 8. 8. Eakdall, Oity Superintendent Public Schools, New York. Mr. L. Stebbins : Dear Sir, — The great pressure of official engagements has hitherto prevented my acknowledgment of the receipt of the very beauti- ful and interesting work publislied by you — " 100 Years' Progress of tlie United States." I have not had time to peruse them thoroughly, but take great pleasure in stating that, so far as I have looked into them, the plan and general execution of the work seem to me to be admirable, and well adapted to the wants, as well of the rising genera.tion, as of our fellow-citizens generally. I cheerfully recom- mend it to the .avorable regard of school officers, parents, teachers, and others, as a very valuable compend of scientific and historical knowledge, and as a work well worthy of a place in every school or private library. No. 45. From E. G. Dana, Mercantile Agency, New York. From a cursory glance at its contents I feel war- ranted in saying it possesses information of much value and usefulness to all classes. Very respectfully, R. G. Dana. No. 43. From the New England Farmer, Boston. " 100 Years'" Progress of the United Statesy — This volume contains an immense amount of valuable and interesting information concerning the rise and development of agriculture, commerce, trade, man- ufactures, travel and transportation, the arts, and other prominent interests of this country. This information is contained in a series of essays by gentlemen, either and all of whom will be recog- nized as competent to illustrate the subject upon which he writes. No. 44. No. 46. From Frank Leslie. After copying the entire titk-page, the notice pro- ceeds thus : Such is the comprehensive title of an elegantly printed work which covers a very wide range of subjects of special American interest. The work is, in fact, an industrial and statistical history of the country since its independence, encyclopaedic in character and arrangement, but yet suffi- ciently complete for every practical purpose. It may be regarded as an epitome of the publication of the Census and the Patent Office, and of the proceedings of our Industrial Societies, compact in form, convenient for reference, and deserving a place in the hands of every reading and reflecting man in the country. From the Evening Post, New York. " 1 00 Years' Progress of the United States. " — The range of subjects treated in this work is very full ; the writers upon them are well selected with regard to specialties, and their manner of handling is al- ways interesting, frequently thorough. The sys- tem pursued is not encyclopaedic, but historical, and, so far as possible, exhaustive. The growth of our agricultural prosperity, with particular regard to improvements made in breeds and machinery, and the dissemination of scientific knowledge among farmers, is well recited, and this department forma one of the most attractive features of the book. No. 4t. From B. J. Lossrso, the Historian. Sir, — I have examined, with great satisfaction, your work entitled " 100 Years' Progress of the United States.'' It is a work of inestimable value to those who desire to know, in minute detail, some- thing more of the history of the country than the events of its political and industrial life as exhibit- ed in the politician's manual, and the bold state- ments of the census ; especially at this time, when the civilized world is eagerly asking what we are and what we have been, that the old governments may attempt to solve the more important question, to them, what we will be. Your work, in fact and logical prophecy, furnishes an answer of which any people may be justly proud. Surely, no nation of the earth has ever experienced such bounding progress as this ; and in the last eighty years, as exhibited in your work, we see ample prophecies of the future, of strength, influence, leadership among the nations, such as the eye of faith employ- ed by the fathers, dimly saw. No American can peruse your pages without feeling grateful for the privilege of being an American citizen. I will use a very tnte phrase and say, with all sincerity, I wish your work could go "into every family in our land," to increase their knowledge and to strengthen their patriotism. Yours respectfully, Benson J. Lossino. No. 48. From the New York Journal of Commerce. " 100 Years' Progress of the United States.^'' — The plan is extensive, and appears to be judiciously carried out. The work is divided mto departments, to each of which has been devoted his laborious attention, producing a readable, and at the same time valuable and instructive, summary of the ad- vances made. This plan necessarily comprises a COMMENDATIONS. 545 very complete history of the arts and sciences for the past century. In many of them it covers the whole period from the earliest time at which they were known to man, for the century has been pro- ductive of new arts, and has furnished mankind with not a few totally new inventions. To digest the contents of the book so as to give a reader even a hint of its comprehensiveness would be impos- sible. The book is well fitted for the family reading, and valuable as a source of interest and instruction to the young, while in the business office and counting-room of every merchant, banker, and pro- fessional man it would answer a thousand daily questions. No. 49. Office of Superintendent of Public Schools, Chicago. •' 100 Years^ Progress^ — Tlie work which you have prepared with so much care and labor, pre- senting the progress of our country durmg the last eighty years, is peculiarly adapted to gratify and instruct all classes of citizens. No work could be offered to the public at the present time more wor- thy of a place in family libraries, and school libra- ries, than the one which you now present. Yours truly, W. H. Wells, Sup. of Public Schools. No. 50. From the Superintendent of the Institution of the Deaf and Dumb, New York. It 18 only recently that I could find time, from the pressure of official duties, to examine the splen- did national work, " 100 Years' Progress.'^ By the way, I observe that, as you give much infor- mation concerning early colonial times, you have in fact given over two and a half centuries of progress. The work strikes me as a production of great valuo and universal interest. While the statesman will find a mass of statistical information, which, by its arrangement and the able commentary accompany- ing it, will assist very materially in the correct so- lution of many politico-economical problems, men actively engaged in almost any pursuit, agricultural, commercial, mining, education, the arts of design, the mechanic arts, etc., will each find much infor- mation, both curious and useful. Hoping for your undertaking all the success it deserves, I remain, very respectfully yours, Harvey P. Pbet. No. 51. From the Boston Cultivator. •* 100 Years' Progress.'' — There is a work which has been published recently, having the above title, and which, because of these magnificent words, of course, arrests the attention of every wise man. Eighty years' progress ? Eighty years of progress in the life of an individual would make a rare rec- ord, pregnant with the most practical and important considerations," but the eighty years' progress of which we speak, are the years of a nation, or the progress of many milUons of individuals, and hence how widely shall we have to open our eyes, if it be faithfully written, and we would take it all in so as to recogmze the details of advancement made by a mighty people. The people, whose brilliant destiny is indicated in the above title, are those of the Uni- ted States, and though we are among and of them, unless by long and constant and vigorous pursuit of the special end, we, ourselves, can have no ade- quate idea of the real extent of out progress, unless it be summed up from the material, as well as the political history of the period about which we in- quire, in some work or works combining the knowl- edge of many whose observation and reading are large in opportunities and in improvement. We, as a people, are noted in Christendom as hav- ing an undue proportion of self-esteem, and an im- modest desire to express it as often as we may find an audience. The Americans, we confess, are, in much, superficial, and their real and unparalleled rapidity of progress is too much and too frequently taken for granted as the basis of adulatory discourse ; and because of this, the old European, famihar from his youth with the fixed sources of his power, and with ease and grace weighing or rejecting questions he knows from the outset are or are not determin- able, naturally looks with discredit upon the live Yankee who " guesses" everything, and when urged to state the real ground of his boasting, only covers . his superficial knowledge of his own country and history by his agility in bombast and fleeing the point in new gratulation and a keen thrust which forces an adverse judgment. And the ignorance which leads Americans to a substitution of their wit, also leads those of other nations to suspect the foundation of their boasted power and national re- sources and importance. There is but one way to cure this, and that is eminently practical and desirable. It is for the people of our country to study their own history more thoroughly, and not their political history only, but the history of their material progress. There are few good books in which to find this ; but there is one which has been put forth by L. Steb- bins, which is especially adapted to this object ; and a more instructive, interesting, and popular work is rarely found. No. 52. From the American Journal of Science and Arts, New Haven, Conn. " 100 Years^ Progress of the United States," by eminent literary men. — This compendium of nation- al statistics forms a valuable handbook of reference, to which all who possess it will have frequent oc- casion to turn for information in respect to the pro- gress and condition of the great elements of growth and development in the history of the United States during eighty years past. The value of the book as a work of reference would have been much enhan- ced by a more frequent reference to authorities and original sources of information. But taken as it is, it supplies a great desideratum, and its pains-taking publisher, Mr. Stebbins, deserves our thanks for so valuable a contribution to our resources in this de- partment of statistics. 546^_ 67 pages, engravings not included. 613* COMMENDATIONS. No. 53. From the Springfield Kepublican. Our citizens are ofifered a large and expensive work, giving the industrial progress of the United States during the 100 years of their national ex- istence. It is embellished by numerous engrav- ings, and the letter-press is prepared by writers of eminence in the various departments of which it treats. It is sold to subscribers only. No. 54 From Isaac Feebis, D. D., Chancellor of the University in New York. I have looked into the work entitled " 100 Years' Progress of the United States," and am happy to unite with the worthy men who have ex- amined it, in commending it to my friends. New York. Isaac Fereis. No. 55. From J. M. Mathkws, D. D., Ex-Chancellor of the Univer- sity in New York. The object of the work is highly commendable ; and, so far as I have been able to examine it, has been executed with ability and fidelity. I freely com- mend it to public patronage. New York. J. M. Mathewi. No. 56. From Prof. E. W. Hosfobd, of Cambridge University. It is a work of very great value for popular ref- erence. The articles having been prepared by writers who have made specialties of the subjects upon which they have written, are, as a con- sequence, eminently attractive. I find them an unfailing source of valuable information and im- portant suggestion. In the way of illustrations what could be more significant than the group of agricultural imple-' ments of I'? 90, contrasted with the mowing, reap- ing, raking, and threshing machines of 1860; or than the Franklin printing press as compared with the Hoe printing press? The author of the article on Steam and Steam- boats, renders a most acceptable service, in placing on record the just claims of John Fitch and Oliver Evans. Let me congratulate yqu- on having found so many able contributors, and in having procured so valuable a work. AGENTS WANTED To sell this valuable Standard National work in every unoccupied Town, City, and Village in the United States. Every family, every young man should have a copy. It is a perfect storehouse of information, a library in itself, every page containing valuable information for all classes. It is the only work of the kind published in the country. Treats of subjects which all are incHned to boast of, and of which we may be proud of having historically described and embodied in a permanent form. Its value as a family book cannot be over-estimated. It will take a place among the standard works of the country like "Webster's Dictionary, Bancroft's History, and the New American Encyclo- pedia. The second canvass will, in many cases, be more profitable than the first, as there are but few books of any kind sold the first time over the ground in proportion to the population ; only just enough to give valuable works a good reputation, and create a de- sire to buy them. We hope some resident of each place where the book has been sold, will take up the second canvass and supply every family who was not furnished the first time over the ground. Our terms are extra liberal. For particulars, territory, &c., Address L. STEBBINS, Hartf&rd, C7 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recalL 2Aug'60£j nexTD uj JUL21l9go ^■.p'GIBC 79^ KK.CI8.JU. 21 77 ft- ai-k s j».' IN! Eft IfBRARYl LOAN ON'^ UQU Om AFIH RgCFll NON-RENEWA8tl (UL 3 0 196b NOV 17 1965 8 7 IN STACKS 44latt fioBf m g7'65-lUM ■SSCi NOV 3 1965 M6l7«gr^«» aiiC 2bb7 -BPM PAtl/C DEC 2 6 1374 LB 21A-50m-4,'60 (■A9562s10)476B V i m General Library ersity of California Berkeley YD 20702 «W|